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Background Hepatitis B and C viruses are the major public health concerns of the globe. The two hepatotropic viruses share common modes of transmission and their co-infection is common. Despite the provision of an effective prevention mechanism, the infections caused by these viruses remain a significant problem worldwide, particularly among developing countries like Ethiopia. Methods This institutional-based retrospective study was conducted between January 2014 December and December 2019 from documented laboratory logbooks of Adigrat general hospital serology laboratory, Tigrai, Ethiopia. data were collected and checked for completeness on a daily based, coded, entered, and cleaned using Epinfo version 7.1, exported and analyzed using SPSS version 23. Binary logistic regression analysis and Chi-square test (X2) assessed the association between dependent and independent variables. The corresponding variables with a P-value (P Results Out of 20,935 clinically suspected individuals, 20,622 were given specimens and tested for hepatitis B and C viruses with total completeness of 98.5%. The overall prevalence of hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus was found to be 3.57% (689/19,273) and 2.13% (30/1,405), respectively. The positivity rate of the hepatitis B virus was 8.0% (106/1317) and 3.24% (583/17,956) among males and females, respectively. Additionally, 2.49%( 12/481) of males and 1.94% (18/924) of females were positive for hepatitis C virus infection. The overall prevalence of co-infection for both hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus was 7.4% (4/54). Sex and age were significantly associated with hepatitis B and C virus infection. Conclusions The overall prevalence of hepatitis B and C is low intermediate according to the WHO criteria. Although there was a fluctuating trend of hepatitis B and C through the years 2014–2019, the result shows moreover declining trend. Both hepatitis B and C share similar routes of transmission and affect all age categories but males were more highly affected than females. Therefore, awareness creation of the community about the methods of transmission, education about prevention, and control of hepatitis B and C virus infection, and improving coverage of youth-friendly services in health facilities should be strengthened.

Background Access to safe drinking water is one of the basic human rights and is critical to health. However, much of the world’s population lacks access to adequate and safe water. Approximately 884,000, 000 people in the world still do not get their drinking water from safe sources; Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for over one third of this number. It is estimated that 80% of all illnesses in the world are related to use of unsafe and contaminated water. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted from August 1st 2017 to July 30th 2018 in three randomly selected woreda (districts) of Eastern Zone Tigrai. Water samples were examined for total coliforms and thermotelorant coliforms using the most probable number method. Standard biochemical testing was performed on samples that tested positive to identify the genus of bacteria. The contaminant risk of water sources were assessed using the sanitary inspection checklist of the World Health Organization. The results were interpreted using World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality. Data was collected using laboratory checklist and sanitary inspection check list. It was entered, cleared and analyzed using SPSS version 21.0 and a variable having a P Results A total of 290 drinking water samples were analyzed for bacteriological quality. A total of 32.4% (n = 94) of water sources showed contamination with faecal and total coliforms. Of these 3.4% (n = 10) samples were contaminated with total coliforms and 29% (n = 84) contaminated with faecal coliforms. The leading water contaminant organisms were Escherichia coli (62.4%), Legionella species (8.5%), and Shigella species (7.5%) respectively. Based on WHO criteria, 15% of water sources were grouped in the very high risk group. Animal excreta and inadequate fencing of water sources were significantly associated with water contamination rate. Conclusion Our findings suggest that most water sources in woredas of Eastern Tigrai are contaminated by faecal coliforms. Therefore, regular sanitary inspection, bacteriological analysis, and adequate fencing should be mandatory to protect drinking water sources from faecal contamination.

BackgroundEthiopia initiated antiretroviral therapy early in 2005. Managing and detecting antiretroviral treatment response is important to monitor the effectiveness of medication and possible drug switching for low immune reconstitution. There is less recovery of CD4+ T cells among human immunodeficiency virus patients infected with tuberculosis. Hence, we aimed to assess the effect of tuberculosis and other determinant factors of immunological response among human immunodeficiency virus patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. A retrospective follow up study was conducted from October to July 2019. A total of 393 participants were enrolled. An interviewer based questionnaire was used for data collection. Patient charts were used to extract clinical data and follow up results of the CD4+ T cell. Current CD4+ T cell counts of patients were performed. STATA 13 software was used to analyze the data. Ap-value ≤0.05 was considered a statistically significant association.ResultsThe mean age of study participants was 39.2 years (SD: + 12.2 years) with 8.32 mean years of follow up. The overall prevalence of immune reconstitution failure was 24.7% (97/393). Highest failure rate occurred within the first year of follow up time, 15.7 per 100 Person-year. Failure of CD4+ T cells reconstitution was higher among tuberculosis coinfected patients (48.8%) than mono-infected patients (13.7%). Living in an urban residence, baseline CD4+ T cell count ≤250 cells/mm3, poor treatment adherence and tuberculosis infection were significantly associated with the immunological failure.ConclusionsThere was a high rate of CD4+ T cells reconstitution failure among our study participants. Tuberculosis infection increased the rate of failure. Factors like low CD4+ T cell baseline count, poor adherence and urban residence were associated with the immunological failure. There should be strict monitoring of CD4+ T cell counts among individuals with tuberculosis coinfection.

BackgroundIncidence and mortality of cervical cancer is the leading cancer among women in Ethiopia. Absence of effective detection methods and treatment strategies is a major reason for the sharply rising cervical cancer rates in developing countries.ObjectiveTo determine factors affecting utilization of cervical cancer screening services among women attending public hospitals in Tigray region in 2018.MethodsHospital based unmatched case control study was applied with sample size of 312 cases and 312 controls. Data was entered to Epi data version 3.1 and exported to SPSS version 20. The odds ratio with their 95% confidence interval, two-tailed P value was calculated. Variables with P value ≤ 0.05 in the bivariate analysis were included in the multivariate logistic regression model.ResultsBeing in the age group of 30-39 and 40-49 years were two and four times more likely to utilize cervical cancer screening than those who were 21-29 years (AOR = 2.15 95%CI:1.11, 4.17 and AOR = 3.86 95%CI:1.48, 10.06) respectively. Current occupation with governmental and private employee were four and three times more likely to utilize the screening service than those housewife respectively (AOR = 3.85 95%CI: 1.87, 7.92 and AOR = 3.17 95%CI: 1.31, 7.66). Having ever given birth and history of multiple sexual partners were more likely to utilize the screening service (AOR = 2.57 95%CI: 1.02, 6.50) and (AOR = 2.65 95%CI: 1.10, 6.40) respectively.ConclusionsThere is a need to strengthen policy and guidelines on cervical cancer screening among women particularly with regarding age group of 21-29, current occupation with housewife, single sexual partner and null parity. All stakeholders should give priority on the promotion and initiation of women to acquired good knowledge and attitude on cervical cancer screening.

Objectives Podoconiosis is a poorly understood neglected tropical disease which results in a high socio-economic burden. In Ethiopia, despite the high prevalence, morbidity, and socio-economic impacts, little information is available about the disease. Thus, this review aimed to assess the effect of sex differences and pooled prevalence of podoconiosis in Ethiopia. Study setting Ethiopia is a country located in East Africa. Methods Published literature on the prevalence of podoconiosis in Ethiopia was searched through MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, Goggle scholar, and Global Health. Studies conducted in humans, open access, and met 50% threshold on the quality assessment checklist score adopted from Joanna Briggs Institute were eligible for inclusion. Data were extracted using first author, year of publication, participants' population, setting (urban/rural), study design, podoconiosis infection among males, the total number of males, podoconiosis infection among females, the total number of females, and context using Microsoft™ Excel. R statistical software version 3.6.1 was utilized to carry out the meta-analysis. The protocol of this review is registered in the PROSPERO international prospective register of systematic reviews and assigned a registration number of CRD 42020154697. Results We performed heterogeneity, sensitivity, and publication bias analysis for the included articles. We identified 229 records, of which 11 studies met the inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of podoconiosis in Ethiopia was 6% [95% CI: 5%; 6%]. Subgroup analysis by setting indicated slightly higher prevalence in rural settings. The odds of podoconiosis infection among female is 1.15 times that of males" The effect of sex on podoconiosis was sub-grouped by study setting and the odds of females were 1.29 times at increased risk of acquiring podoconiosis than males (p < 0.01) in rural settings. Conclusions The prevalence of podoconiosis in Ethiopia is high. This review suggested that females are at higher risk of developing podoconiosis than males, particularly in rural communities which has health promotion and awareness implications regarding protective wear., Determinants, Epidemiology, Ethiopia, Podoconiosis, Prevalence

Objective Approach to asymptomatic bacteriuria among pregnant women in Ethiopia is mainly based on clinical grounds and urine strip and microscopy tests. On top of this, the treatment is also on an empirical basis which may leads to an increased antimicrobial resistance. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility profile and associated factors of asymptomatic bacteriuria among pregnant women attending antenatal clinic in Adigrat Hospital, Northern Ethiopia. Results Out of 259 pregnant women included in the study, the prevalence of asymptomatic bacteriuria was at 55 (21.2%). Gram negative bacteria, specifically Escherichia coli were the predominant isolates followed by Klebsiella species and Proteus mirabilis. Of the Gram positive identified bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus was main isolate. Age of the mother (18–25 years old) with [AOR = 8.5, 95% CI (2.2, 32.9)], family income (

The objective of this study was to identify patterns of cough events for COPD patients. Simultaneously, the study was used to develop a Matlab based graphical user interface (GUI) that enables the user to analyze time-stamps of cough data. The time stamp data was received from Philips Research. They cover 17 data sets of 16 COPD patients and were determined using a semi-automated cough detection algorithm. Cough detection ran for multiple days in the living and bed rooms of the patients. The time stamp marks the event that a cough is assumed to occur. A descriptive statistics and a Markov Chain Model was used for analysis. A pattern of cough events was described by the probability that a COPD patient is in one of three possible states at a specific hour and in another state at the next hour. To define the states, the following three characteristics were used: 1) relative frequency, 2) average value-three times standard deviation band, 3) average value-three times inter-quartile range band. Relaxation time was determined to describe the dynamics of the cough event patterns. To be precise, pattern changes were characterized by considering the time it takes for the probabilities to reach stationarity. To reduce noise, the daily dynamics of the cough events over five day periods with a four day overlap were considered. From the results, we concluded that the distribution of cough events for all data sets was skewed to the right. The developed Matlab based graphical user interface allows the user to analyze the cough events of COPD patients together with their medical history. We conclude that the relaxation time and the stationary distribution of the Markov chain representation were typical characteristics of the patterns of cough events and the cough behavior of COPD patients was patient specific and varies over time.

The study was conducted on female students who were 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008 entries in the fields of Natural Science, Agriculture, and Social Science. From 1931 female students a sample of 605 was taken using stratified random sampling, Primary and secondary data were collected using questionnaire and analyzed using the Bayesian logistic regression analysis. The results showed that the percentage of graduation among 362 females who were enrolled in 2005, 2006, and 2007 was 72.1%. Similarly the retention rate among 243 females of 2008 entry was 75.7%. From the Bayesian logistic regression analyses, significant predicators of both graduation and retention were choice of field, preparatory average result, entrance exam score and first year cumulative GPA. Moreover pregnancy, organizing studying and leisure time, habit of chewing Khat, satisfaction with instructors, parent income, habit of smoking cigarette and using drugs, and feel safe to study at night in classrooms appeared as significant predictors of retention. The graduation rate and retention rate for the students who assigned to the field they did not choose were lower than that for those assigned to the field they chose. Those with first year CGPA less than 2.0 were having lower rates of graduation and retention than those having greater than 2.0. The graduation and retention rates for the students having higher preparatory average result and higher entrance exam score were higher than that for those having lower. The students having parents’ income less than 500 were less likely to retain than those having parents’ income greater than 1500. The retention rate for the students who were not satisfied with their instructors was lower than those were satisfied. The students who cannot organize their study and leisure time easily were less likely to retain than those can organize. In conclusion, the factors those mainly affect female students’ graduation and retention were more of academic variables; hence we recommend that assigning to the field they choose by their interest may help female students’ graduation and retention. The teaching method at secondary and preparatory schools should be designed to challenge and motivate them to adequately prepare them for Higher Education Institutions. Moreover, campus and Department administrators in collaboration with the students themselves and academic staff need to work hard to bring change in behavior, academics, and social aspects of female students at the University.