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Livestock diseases caused by Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei, collectively known as nagana, are responsible for billions of dollars in lost food production annually. There is an urgent need for novel therapeutics. Encouragingly, promising antitrypanosomal benzoxaboroles are under veterinary development. Here, we show that the most efficacious subclass of these compounds are prodrugs activated by trypanosome serine carboxypeptidases (CBPs). Drug-resistance to a development candidate, AN11736, emerged readily in T. brucei, due to partial deletion within the locus containing three tandem copies of the CBP genes. T. congolense parasites, which possess a larger array of related CBPs, also developed resistance to AN11736 through deletion within the locus. A genome-scale screen in T. brucei confirmed CBP loss-of-function as the primary mechanism of resistance and CRISPR-Cas9 editing proved that partial deletion within the locus was sufficient to confer resistance. CBP re-expression in either T. brucei or T. congolense AN11736-resistant lines restored drug-susceptibility. CBPs act by cleaving the benzoxaborole AN11736 to a carboxylic acid derivative, revealing a prodrug activation mechanism. Loss of CBP activity results in massive reduction in net uptake of AN11736, indicating that entry is facilitated by the concentration gradient created by prodrug metabolism., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

In this study, we evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of diminazene diaceturate at a dose of 7 mg/kg (DA), imidocarb dipropionate at 4.8 mg/kg (IMD), isometamidium chloride at 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg (ISM 0.5 and ISM 1.0) and combinations applied through different methods to treat Trypanosoma vivax in experimentally infected calves. Thirty male Girolando calves were kept indoors and infected intravenously with T. vivax trypomastigotes (approximately 1 × 10 6 ). On D-1, the calves were randomized based on the quantity of infecting parasites per animal, yielding six groups of five animals each: G1: positive control group without treatment; G2 animals treated with DA on Day 0 intramuscularly (IM); G3 animals treated with IMD on Day 0 and D + 14 subcutaneously; G4 animals treated with ISM 0.5 on Day 0 IM; G5 animals treated with ISM 1.0 on Day 0 IM; G6 animals received DA on Day 0 and ISM 1.0 on D + 14, both IM. Throughout 180 days, blood samples were collected for the evaluation of T. vivax using the Woo, Brener and PCR methods. The results indicated that the treatment protocols with DA and/or ISM 0.5 and ISM 1.0 had high efficacy (100 %) against T. vivax. Interestingly, cattle that received ISM remained free of parasites until D + 180. In contrast, animals treated with IMD had relapsed T. vivax detected on the 10 th and 14 th days post-treatment (DPT). Cattle that received ISM 1.0 did not exhibit relapsed T. vivax in the blood, even after reinfection performed on the 50 th DPT. However, treatment with DA on Day 0 failed to prevent a new infection of T. vivax on the 50 th DPT. The animals that received ISM 1.0 had a transient decrease in packed cell volume similar to that found in the control group. The reappearance of T. vivax in herds in Brazil treated with DA likely occurred due to the short half-life of the drug and not necessarily due to T. vivax resistance to DA., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Kinetoplastid parasites-trypanosomes and leishmanias-infect millions of humans and cause economically devastating diseases of livestock, and the few existing drugs have serious deficiencies. Benzoxaborole-based compounds are very promising potential novel anti-trypanosomal therapies, with candidates already in human and animal clinical trials. We investigated the mechanism of action of several benzoxaboroles, including AN7973, an early candidate for veterinary trypanosomosis. In all kinetoplastids, transcription is polycistronic. Individual mRNA 5'-ends are created by trans splicing of a short leader sequence, with coupled polyadenylation of the preceding mRNA. Treatment of Trypanosoma brucei with AN7973 inhibited trans splicing within 1h, as judged by loss of the Y-structure splicing intermediate, reduced levels of mRNA, and accumulation of peri-nuclear granules. Methylation of the spliced leader precursor RNA was not affected, but more prolonged AN7973 treatment caused an increase in S-adenosyl methionine and methylated lysine. Together, the results indicate that mRNA processing is a primary target of AN7973. Polyadenylation is required for kinetoplastid trans splicing, and the EC50 for AN7973 in T. brucei was increased three-fold by over-expression of the T. brucei cleavage and polyadenylation factor CPSF3, identifying CPSF3 as a potential molecular target. Molecular modeling results suggested that inhibition of CPSF3 by AN7973 is feasible. Our results thus chemically validate mRNA processing as a viable drug target in trypanosomes. Several other benzoxaboroles showed metabolomic and splicing effects that were similar to those of AN7973, identifying splicing inhibition as a common mode of action and suggesting that it might be linked to subsequent changes in methylated metabolites. Granule formation, splicing inhibition and resistance after CPSF3 expression did not, however, always correlate and prolonged selection of trypanosomes in AN7973 resulted in only 1.5-fold resistance. It is therefore possible that the modes of action of oxaboroles that target trypanosome mRNA processing might extend beyond CPSF3 inhibition., Competing Interests: I have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: Yvonne Freund was employed by Anacor Pharmaceuticals. Benzoxaboroles were supplied by Anacor Pharmaceuticals (YF) which was later taken over by Pfizer. This does not alter our adherence to all the PLOS Pathogens policies on sharing data and materials.

Novel l-valinate amide benzoxaboroles and analogues were designed and synthesized for a structure-activity-relationship (SAR) investigation to optimize the growth inhibitory activity against Trypanosoma congolense (T. congolense) and Trypanosoma vivax (T. vivax) parasites. The study identified 4-fluorobenzyl (1-hydroxy-7-methyl-1,3-dihydrobenzo[c][1,2]oxaborole-6-carbonyl)-l-valinate (5, AN11736), which showed IC 50 values of 0.15 nM against T. congolense and 1.3 nM against T. vivax, and demonstrated 100% efficacy with a single dose of 10 mg/kg against both T. congolense and T. vivax in mouse models of infection (IP dosing) and in the target animal, cattle, dosed intramuscularly. AN11736 has been advanced to early development studies., (Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The primate-specific serum protein apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1) is the only secreted member of a family of cell death promoting proteins 1-4 . APOL1 kills the bloodstream parasite Trypanosoma brucei brucei, but not the human sleeping sickness agents T.b. rhodesiense and T.b. gambiense 3 . We considered the possibility that intracellular members of the APOL1 family, against which extracellular trypanosomes could not have evolved resistance, could kill pathogenic T. brucei subspecies. Here we show that recombinant APOL3 (rAPOL3) kills all African trypanosomes, including T.b. rhodesiense, T.b. gambiense and the animal pathogens Trypanosoma evansi, Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax. However, rAPOL3 did not kill more distant trypanosomes such as Trypanosoma theileri or Trypanosoma cruzi. This trypanolytic potential was partially shared by rAPOL1 from Papio papio (rPpAPOL1). The differential killing ability of rAPOL3 and rAPOL1 was associated with a distinct dependence on acidic pH for activity. Due both to its instability and toxicity when injected into mice, rAPOL3 cannot be used for the treatment of infection, but an experimental rPpAPOL1 mutant inspired by APOL3 exhibited enhanced trypanolytic activity in vitro and the ability to completely inhibit T.b. gambiense infection in mice. We conclude that pH dependence influences the trypanolytic potential of rAPOLs.

African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) is caused by the tsetse fly-transmitted protozoans Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax and leads to huge agricultural losses throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Three drugs are available to treat nagana in cattle (diminazene diaceturate, homidium chloride, and isometamidium chloride). With increasing reports of drug-resistant populations, new molecules should be investigated as potential candidates to combat nagana. Dicationic compounds have been demonstrated to have excellent efficacy against different kinetoplastid parasites. This study therefore evaluated the activities of 37 diamidines, using in vitro and ex vivo drug sensitivity assays. The 50% inhibitory concentrations obtained ranged from 0.007 to 0.562 μg/ml for T. congolense and from 0.019 to 0.607 μg/ml for T. vivax On the basis of these promising results, 33 of these diamidines were further examined using in vivo mouse models of infection. Minimal curative doses of 1.25 mg/kg of body weight for both T. congolense - and T. vivax -infected mice were seen when the diamidines were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) over 4 consecutive days. From these observations, 15 of these 33 diamidines were then further tested in vivo , using a single bolus dose for administration. The total cure of mice infected with T. congolense and T. vivax was seen with single i.p. doses of 5 and 2.5 mg/kg, respectively. This study identified a selection of diamidines which could be considered lead compounds for the treatment of nagana., (Copyright © 2017 American Society for Microbiology.)

Ethiopia, particularly in the Northwest region, is affected by both tsetse fly and non-tsetse fly transmitted trypanosomosis with a significant impact on livestock productivity. The control of trypanosomosis in Ethiopia relies on either curative or prophylactic treatment of animals with diminazene aceturate (DA) or isometamidium chloride (ISM), respectively. However, since these two trypanocides have been on the market for more than 40 years, this may have resulted in drug-resistance. Therefore, in vivo drug resistance tests on two Ethiopian isolates of Trypanosoma vivax were completed, one from an area where tsetse flies are present and one from an area where tsetse flies are not present. Twenty four cattle (Bos indicus) aged between 6 and 12 months, purchased from a trypanosome-free area (Debre Brehan: Northcentral Ethiopia) and confirmed to be trypanosome-negative, were randomly assigned into four groups of six animals, which were infected with T. vivax isolated from a tsetse-infested or non-tsetse infested area, and in each case treated with curative doses of DA or ISM. Each animal were inoculated intravenously 3×10(6) trypanosomes from donor animals. Parasitaemia became patent earlier in infections with non-tsetse T. vivax (∼7 days post-infection) than tsetse (∼14 days post-infection). Both groups were treated at the highest peak parasitaemia with DA or ISM and nine cattle, four with non-tsetse T. vivax (two ISM- and two DA-treated) and five with tsetse T. vivax (three ISM- and two DA-treated) showed relapses of parasitaemia. Moreover, treatment did not improve diagnostic host markers of trypanosome infections in these animals. In conclusion, in vivo drug tests indicated the presence of resistant parasites (>20% of treated animals in each group relapsed) against recommended doses of both available trypanocidal drugs., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Trypanocidal drug resistance is unanimously recognized as a threat for livestock production in regions where the prevalence of trypanosomosis is high. To assess the impact of the disease and the effect of drug resistance on the health of small ruminants, twelve Trypanosoma vivax isolates collected in 6 villages in the vicinity of Bobo Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) were injected into 12 groups of 5 Sahelian goats, two being treated with 3.5mg/kg body weight diminazene aceturate (DA), two with 0.5mg/kg body weight isometamidium chloride (ISM) and one left untreated as control. A monitoring was performed every 5 days for 100 days to evaluate the parasitaemia by buffy coat examination, the hematocrit and the body weight. Among the 12 groups, 6 were additionally monitored using a trypanosome specific 18S-PCR-RFLP every 5 days from day 30 to day 100 to verify the complete clearance of the parasites from the blood of the hosts. In six groups of goats, trypanosomes disappeared completely after treatment, five groups showed relapses in at least one goat treated with ISM and one group showed relapses in one goat treated with DA and one with ISM. For the 6 groups that were screened both using microscopic examination and trypanosome specific 18S-PCR-RFLP, the following results were observed: for the groups treated with DA, no relapses by microscopic examination and 83.3% (10/12) using the 18S-PCR-RFLP. For the groups treated with ISM, 25% (3/12) relapses by microscopic examination and 83.3% with the 18S-PCR-RFLP (10/12). The evolution of the PCV and the weight during the observation period from relapsing (either by microscopical examination or by 18S-PCR-RFLP diagnosis) and non relapsing animals were compared. The relative average PCV in goats that relapsed microscopically, decreased significantly more than in non-relapsing goats. This difference was not significant when relapses were detected using the trypanosome specific 18S-PCR-RFLP. This indicates that only the animals with the highest parasitaemia suffered from the infection. Relapses after treatment where the host controls the parasitaemia to a level below the sensitivity of the microscopical examination do not affect body weight nor PCV., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A longitudinal study assessed the chemoresistance to isometamidium chloride (ISM) and diminazene aceturate (DA) in the region of the Boucle du Mouhoun in Burkina Faso. A preliminary cross-sectional survey allowed the identification of the 10 villages with the highest parasitological prevalences (from 2.1% to 16.1%). In each of these 10 villages, two herds of approximately 50 bovines were selected, one being treated with ISM (1mg/kg b.w.) and the other remaining untreated as control group. All animals (treated and untreated herds) becoming infected were treated with DA (3.5mg/kg b.w.). In total, 978 head of cattle were followed up. Fortnightly controls of the parasitaemia and PCV were carried out during 8 weeks. The main trypanosome species was Trypanosoma vivax (83.6%) followed by Trypanosoma congolense (16.4%). In two villages, less than 25% of the control untreated cattle became positive indicating no need to use prophylactic treatment. These two villages were not further studied. Resistance to ISM was observed in 5 of the remaining 8 villages (Débé, Bendougou, Kangotenga, Mou and Laro) where the relative risk (control/treated hazard ratios) of becoming infected was lower than 2 i.e. between 0.89 (95% CI: 0.43-2.74) and 1.75 (95% CI: 0.57-5.37). In contrast, this study did not show evidence of resistance to DA in the surveyed villages with only 8.6% (n=93) of the cattle relapsing after treatment. Our results suggest that because of the low prevalence of multiple resistances in the area a meticulous use of the sanative pair system would constitute the best option to delay as much as possible the spread of chemoresistance till complete eradication of the disease by vector control operations., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The ability of intravenously administered lactose in normal saline to prevent a decline in packed cell volume (PCV) during experimental trypanosomosis was studied in Zebu cattle. During the lactose infusion period, the PCV was stable up to Day 5 post-infection (p.i.) in a lactose-infused group, compared to that in an uninfused group in which the PCV dropped significantly (P < 0.05) as shown by the values of cumulative percentage change. Furthermore the mean rate of change in PCV was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the uninfused group relative to the lactose-infused group during the same period. While the PCV fell markedly in the lactose-infused group a day after lactose infusion was stopped (Day 13 p.i.), subsequent PCV values were significantly (P < 0.05) higher compared to those in the uninfused group, up to the end of experiment on Day 17 p.i. However the mean rates of change in PCV did not vary significantly (P > 0.05) between the groups during the period in which lactose infusion was stopped. The mean levels of parasitaemic waves and parasitaemia were higher, more prolonged and more frequent in the lactose-infused group. It was inferred that the lactose was able to prevent an early onset of anaemia in the Trypanosoma vivax-infected Zebu cattle.

Lactose in normal saline was administered intravenously to a group of Zebu cattle infected with Trypanosoma vivax to determine the blood plasma kinetics at onset of an experimental infection and its ability to protect tissues against damage as part of preliminary studies to determine its suitability for use in the treatment of trypanosomosis. Significantly (P < 0.01) higher lactose concentrations were observed in the T. vivax-infected bulls at 30 min and 1 h (P < 0.05) post-infection (p.i.) and by 4 h p.i. the plasma lactose remained above the level prior to infusion, after which it fell slightly below the pre-infusion level in the uninfected group. Calculated pharmacokinetic parameters revealed delayed excretion of lactose in the T. vivax-infected group soon after infection. The total body clearance (Cl(B)) was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced. The biological half-life (t1/2), elimination rate constant (k(el)) and apparent volume of distribution (V(d)) were relatively decreased (P > 0.05) as a result of the T. vivax infection. Retention of lactose in the plasma was attributed to decreased plasma clearance. It is suggested that the presence of trypanosomes in circulation rather than organic lesions could have been responsible for the delay observed in the excretion of lactose. At 12 weeks p.i., when the experiment was terminated, the group infected and given lactose infusion (despite higher parasitaemia) had no gross or histopathological lesions in the brain, spleen, lymph nodes, heart, kidneys, liver and testes. However, the group infected but not infused with lactose were emaciated, had pale mucosae, watery blood, general muscular atrophy, serous atrophy of coronary fat and other adipose tissue, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, swollen and oedematous lymph nodes, all of which are suggestive of trypanosomosis. Histopathological lesions included narrowing of Bowman's space and hypercellularity of glomerular tufts in the kidneys with the mean glomerular tuft nuclear indices (GTNs) in the group significantly higher (P < 0.01) than the mean GTNs of the lactose-infused and control bulls. Degenerative changes occurred in the myocardium, spleen, testes and epididymides. The tesicular and epididymal lesions are indicative of male reproductive dysfunction.

We tested the efficacy of two formulations of isometamidium in a tsetse-infested farm in North Cameroon from 20 August 2000 to 5 January 2001. A total of 90 adult cattle were used in three groups of 30 each corresponding to two treated and one untreated control. Drug efficacies were evaluated in terms of reduction of parasite incidence in the host's blood, maintenance of packed-cell volume (PCV) and weight gains. Both drugs reduced the incidence of parasites even though re-infections 2 weeks after treatment were common. PCV values were similar in both treated groups but higher than in the untreated control. Body weight changes followed a similar trend with the control losing weight from a mean of 427+/-119kg at the beginning to 398+/-93kg in 4 months. Weights increased from 375+/-76 and 396+/-110 to 396+/-69 and 418+/-112kg in the Veridium and Trypamidium groups, respectively. Efficacy was similar between the two formulations of isometamidium in the prophylaxis of bovine trypanosomosis. However, the presence of parasites in some animals barely 2 weeks after treatment suggested that either infections were not cleared or residual drug effects were not sufficient to prevent re-infections.

Ascofuranone, an antibiotic isolated from Ascochyta visiae, showed trypanocidal activity in Trypanosoma vivax-infected mice. A single dose of 50 mg/kg ascofuranone effectively cured the mice without the help of glycerol. Repeated administrations of this drug further enhanced its chemotherapeutic effect. After two, three, and four consecutive days treatment, the doses needed to cure the infection decreased to 25, 12, and 6 mg/kg, so that the total doses administered were 50, 36 and 24 mg/kg, respectively. Ascofuranone (50 mg/kg) also had a prophylactic effect against T. vivax infection within the first two days after administration. This prophylactic activity diminished to 80% by day 3 and completely disappeared four days after administration. Of particular interest in this study was that ascofuranone had trypanocidal activity in T. vivax-infected mice in the absence of glycerol, whereas co-administration of glycerol or repeated administrations of this drug are needed for Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection. Our present results strongly suggest that ascofuranone is also an effective tool in chemotherapy against African trypanosomiasis in domestic animals.

A rodent adapted clone of Trypanosoma vivax was used to infect cyclophosphamide treated mice and rats. Fresh blood containing trypanosomes, was centrifuged in a density gradient of three Percoll solutions, 1.07, 1.06, 1.05 g/ml, respectively, carefully layered on top of each other. The yields of this simple procedure for trypanosome purification were about six times higher than those obtained with the conventional anion-exchange columns. Cryopreservation of trypanosomes using glycerol yielded 90% viable parasites, whereas using dimethylsulfoxide, a more commonly used cryoprotectant, the viability was only 35%.

Cattle from 50 farms in Mukono County, Uganda, were monitored for trypanosomes every second month over an 18-month period (1995-1996) by mini-anion exchange chromatography and haematocrit centrifugation techniques. Eighteen trypanosome isolates collected from cattle during this period were characterised in cattle, goats and mice for their sensitivity to homidium, isometamidium and diminazene; 10 of the isolates were selected randomly, 8 were from animals that had the highest serum isometamidium concentrations at the time the isolates were collected. All the isolates contained only Trypanosoma brucei and/or T. vivax. In nai;ve Boran (Bos indicus) cattle the isolates exhibited low pathogenicity and were sensitive to diminazene aceturate at 3.5 mg/kg body weight (bw) and isometamidium chloride at 0.5 mg/kg bw. In goats, 5 of 8 isolates were highly pathogenic, producing clinical signs indicative of central nervous system involvement within 60 days of infection; all such isolates contained T. brucei. However, all 8 populations were sensitive in goats to diminazene aceturate at 3.5 mg/kg bw. In contrast, 4 populations were refractory to treatment with isometamidium chloride at 0.5 mg/kg bw in at least 1 out of 3 goats each. Furthermore, 5 populations were refractory to treatment with homidium chloride at 1.0 mg/kg bw in a minimum of 2 out of 3 goats each. In mice, the 50% curative dose values for 11 Mukono isolates that contained T. brucei ranged from 0.30 to 1.89 mg/kg bw for diminazene aceturate, from 0.02 to 0.17 mg/kg bw for isometamidium chloride and from 0.90 to 4.57 mg/kg bw for homidium chloride. Thus, by comparison to reference drug-sensitive populations, all the stabilates were highly sensitive to diminazene and isometamidium, while some expressed low levels of resistance to homidium.

Two Trypanosoma vivax stocks were initiated in culture with tsetse or culture-derived metacyclics. They were propagated axenically as bloodstream trypomastigotes at 35 degrees C in 4% CO2 in air. Populations of trypanosomes were incubated with various concentrations of antitrypanosomal compounds, namely diminazene aceturate, quinapyramine sulphate, DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine, isometamidium chloride, suramin and melCy. Growth was monitored after 24 h of incubation and the growth inhibition was calculated. All six drugs tested showed little effect upon the growth of the parasite populations. These results indicate that a 24-h growth-inhibition test was not suitable for determining the drug susceptibility of T. vivax stocks in vitro. Neither did the results correlate with those obtained with susceptible or resistant stocks of T.b. brucei, T.b. evansi or T. simiae described in the literature, or with the results of these two T. vivax stocks tested in cattle.