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Purpose This study aims to investigate the influence of social camouflaging on victimisation and offending in relation to autism and pathological demand avoidance (PDA) traits. Camouflaging aims to overcome or conceal difficulties in social and communication skills. Autistic individuals report camouflaging in response to threat and being verbally and physically assaulted when they have not camouflaged. Thus, camouflaging could be associated with victimisation. Camouflaging could also impact on specialist support available to an individual, potentially increasing the risk of victimisation or offending. Design/methodology/approach Cross-sectional study was conducted using 220 participants from the general population who completed online questionnaires measuring victimisation and offending, autism and PDA traits, camouflaging and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Findings Correlational analysis found positive associations between camouflaging and victimisation, and camouflaging and lifetime offending. Greater camouflaging and PDA traits predicted greater offending, whereas greater autism traits predicted fewer offending behaviours. While correlated, camouflaging was not significantly predictive of victimisation. Victimisation was predicted by symptoms of depression and PDA traits. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to consider camouflaging as an influencing factor on offending and victimisation in autistic and PDA individuals.

Social camouflaging refers to behaviours or strategies which conceal an individuals’ Autism from others. Camouflaging has also been described by individuals with Pathological Demand Avoidance (PDA). Camouflaging is reportedly used in response to threat, potentially reducing the risk of victimisation. Camouflaging can also prevent timely diagnosis and access to support, which may increase the risk of victimisation and offending behaviour. This thesis aims to examine the forensic implications of social camouflaging in association with autism and PDA traits.\ud \ud First, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine the prevalence of victimisation in autistic individuals considering various forms of victimisation such as bullying and conventional crime, finding a prevalence rate of 44%. There was heterogeneity in the prevalence rate. Subgroup analysis explored potential moderating factors such as participants’ age, reporter used, and the setting from which participants were recruited. Higher prevalence rates were found in community samples compared to clinical samples and were greater in parent-report compared to self-report. However, heterogeneity remained, restricting the generalisation of the results. Nevertheless, the results highlighted several implications such as increasing collaboration between health and social care services.\ud \ud Following this, a methodological critique of the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ), a widely used measure of victimisation, is presented. The JVQ has demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and good predictive validity. However, more evidence is required regarding criterion and concurrent validity and test-retest reliability. The critique provides recommendations for the istudy of victimisation in research, including validation of the JVQ in autistic people.\ud \ud A cross-sectional study with 220 adults then used multiple regression analysis to explore the association between victimisation, PDA and autistic traits, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and social camouflaging. Victimisation was predicted by PDA traits and symptoms of depression. Camouflaging was positively correlated with victimisation, suggesting it could increase the risk of victimisation for autistic and PDA individuals.\ud \ud A second study with the same sample used multiple regression analysis to examine the relationship between offending behaviour, autism and PDA traits, symptoms of depression and anxiety, and social camouflaging. The analysis found camouflaging predicted greater offending behaviour. PDA and autism traits also predicted offending behaviour. Thus, camouflaging may also increase the risk of offending behaviour. The results of the empirical studies are considered with reference to implications within the Criminal Justice System.\ud \ud The results presented throughout the thesis are considered and a theoretical model is produced through structural equation modelling. This found direct and indirect pathways to offending and victimisation through mental health difficulties, autism and PDA traits, and camouflaging behaviour. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations, and recommendations for future research are then discussed.