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Appropriate collaborative learning support is necessary for group learning in a flipped classroom setting, especially in the out-of-class learning phase. This study involved a collaborative mind mapping strategy to engage learners in group activities in the flipped classroom setting. A pilot experiment was conducted to examine the effect of such a strategy on students’ learning achievement, self-efficacy, motivation, and acceptance of mind mapping in a news photography course. Specifically, this study compared the effects of two mind mapping strategies (collaborative vs. individual) combined with instructional methods (flipped classroom vs. conventional) on students’ learning outcomes. A 2 × 2 mixed-factorial experiment design was used, with the mind mapping strategies as the within-subjects factors and the instructional methods as the between-subjects factors. Ninety-two sophomores enrolled in this course were randomly assigned to either flipped classroom or conventional lecturing. Both method groups used collaborative and individual mind mapping. Results revealed that the combination of a collaborative mind mapping strategy and a flipped classroom significantly improved students’ learning achievement and self-efficacy. In addition, flipped classroom students had a more positive attitude toward accepting and using collaborative mind mapping than those in the individual mind mapping condition. These implications provided instructional designers guidance to apply collaborative mind mapping into a flipped classroom and suggested that designers should focus on improving students’ motivation by integrating other strategies.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the usability of a game-based learning material. The heuristics and think-aloud approach were employed to determine the usability of the learning material. Four experts used the learning material independently and completed a heuristic evaluation questionnaire based on a design and use perspective. Forty-five university students used the learning material independently and completed a heuristic evaluation questionnaire based on their experiences. The heuristic evaluation questionnaire was comprised of six constructs with a total of twelve heuristic evaluation criteria. The experts and students provided data about usability problems while using the learning material. The usability problems that were found included: (a) inconsistent interface styles on different learning units (i.e., game scenes) that affected the learnability, memorability and operation of interfaces; (b) inadequate operational efficiency and guidance could be improved; (c) small games and instructional videos could probably increase learning times and loads; (d) different guidance and supports for errors and inconsistent display styles of error messages for each learning units; and (e) inappropriate feedback on errors and inadequate interaction on instructional videos. The usability problems were identified and improved with the usability evaluation methods. Educational implication and research recommendation are discussed.

The setting for medical practitioners typically involves collaborative and interdisciplinary teams. Medical schools have embraced many teaching methods that use a group of learners to facilitate learning. However, the actual learning benefits of these methods require additional inquiry in the areas of team cognition and team processes. There is limited research that evaluates the value of the team process behaviors in medical education to improve collaborative learning outcomes. This conceptual article provides a framework for team learning processes based on the theoretical foundation of social learning and the development of group shared mental models during team interactions that impact a student’s performance.

Considerable resources have been invested in examining the game design principles that best foster learning. One way to understand what constitutes a well-designed instructional game is to examine the relationship between gaming characteristics and actual learning. This report discusses the lessons learned from the design and development process of instructional simulations that are enhanced by competition and storyline gaming characteristics and developed as instructional interventions for a study on the effects of gaming characteristics on learning effectiveness and engagement. The goal of the instructional simulations was to engage college students in learning the statistics concepts of standard deviation and the empirical rule. A pilot study followed by a small-scale experimental study were conducted to improve the value and effectiveness of these designed simulations. Based on these findings, specific practical implications are offered for designing actual learning environments that are enhanced by competition and storyline gaming elements.

This editorial calls for the submission of replication studies, meta-analyses, and reports of large-scale impact studies to any section of ETR&D.

For the sake of the framework presented here, we offer these definitions: Education is aimed at developing knowledge, skills, and attitudes to enable a person to be an effective problem solver, an independent critical thinker, a lifelong learner, and a responsible member of society; education includes formal education (elementary, secondary, and tertiary), informal education (planned, incidental, lifelong learning, etc.), and training (on-the-job, professional development, etc.). Technology involves the disciplined application of knowledge to achieve a practical purpose valued by a group or a society; technologies may involve tangible devices as well as the systematic knowledge involved in the creation of a variety of benefits to groups and society. Learning involves a stable and persisting change in what a person or a group of people knows and is able to do; the processes that result in learning (e.g., learning activities) can be and often are distinguished from the products of learning (e.g., learning outcomes). Instruction is that which is designed to facilitate and support learning; instruction can be direct, as in a lecture or structured presentation, or more indirect, as in guided practice with feedback, inquiry-based methods, and exploratory learning. Performance refers to how well a person or a group is able to successfully complete a designated task; performance factors typically include accuracy, speed, consistency, and the ability to transfer knowledge and ability to a more challenging set of tasks. Knowledge refers to beliefs that are well grounded in theory, evidence and experience; knowledge involves information that has been validated by others and which is widely accepted as validated and reliable. These definitions are generally consistent with the elaborated definitions in Educational Technology: A Definition with Commentary (Januszewski & Molenda 2007) and the Encyclopedia of Terminology for Educational Communications and Technology (Richey 2013); the reader is referred to those volumes which contain more detailed explanations of nuances and issues and along with excellent references.

The purpose of the study was to analyze two certificate programs in regard to the impacts on alumni professional career and strengths and weaknesses of certificate programs in the views of their alumni. The sample consisted of 58 participants who completed one of the certificate programs. The results showed that alumni rated self-improvement as the biggest benefit, career advancement benefit as average, and career change benefit as low from the certificate programs. Also, alumni thought that all program components were of strong quality, but the majority of alumni still wanted to see an increased emphasis on teaching, interaction with other students, support, and assessment feedback focus of the program. © 2013 Taylor & Francis. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştirma Kurumu The authors would like to acknowledge the fellowship provided to the second author by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) and the third author by Turkish Higher Education Council (YOK).

There are many misconceptions about academic writing and publishing that sometimes inhibit or intimidate educational researchers. One misconception is that academic writing should reflect the complexity of challenging scholarly research. As it happens, a complex writing style can detract from the comprehensibility of a manuscript. It is possible to tell a very complex story using simple, descriptive language. Short sentences are often more easily understood than long sentences containing multiple dependent clauses. Academic writing should not result in discovery reading; the reader needs to know the purpose, scope, and major point prior to embarking on the adventure of reading the rest of the manuscript. This document includes some tips on writing clearly for an academic audience along with an editor’s perspective on publishing research.

Data is automatically generated in many of the common behaviors that we engage in on a daily basis. However, while we may carry out analytics in an attempt to make meaning from this “incidental” data, there is a need at many levels to conceptualize the types of data that would deliberately inform decision-making. There are well-grounded processes that may be followed to identify the “strategic” data that are needed in order for analytics to effectively and strategically inform performance and instructional decision-making.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a shared mental model (SMM) based intervention on student team mental model similarity and ultimately team performance in an undergraduate meteorology course. The team knowledge sharing (TKS) intervention was designed to promote team reflection, communication, and improvement planning. Results reveal that the TKS intervention was partially effective in enhancing student team SMM and team scores on meteorology lab assignments. The TKS intervention has potential for use in science courses where a teaming approach is used. Similar interventions could likely be developed, empirically examined, and potentially employed to promote success in handling complex challenges while working in teams in the classroom and beyond.

The transition from classroom instruction to e-learning raises pedagogical challenges for university instructors. A controlled integration of e-learning tools into classroom instruction may offer learners tangible benefits and improved effectiveness. This design-based research (DBR) study engaged students in e-learning activities integrated into classroom instruction utilizing a Social Annotation Modeling Learning System (SAM-LS). SAM-LS employs Web 2.0 software called HyLighter that allows instructors to implement text-dependent socio-intellectual interactions among students. Twenty students engaged in a HyLighter activity, individually or in groups, analyzed an article by annotating text, providing elaborate answers, and responding to peers' opinions. Their motivation, technical competency, and attitudes toward HyLighter's technical and pedagogical usability were evaluated. Students reported positive perceptions of HyLighter's technical usability but neutral attitudes toward its pedagogical usefulness and future usage. Favorable technical usability perceptions correlated with high computer and assignment self-efficacy, while negative attitudes correlated with high computer anxiety. Groups reported positive collaborative experiences. Finally, students' motivation was high and did not change as a result of the activity. These findings are discussed in relation to future DBR iterations of designing and implementing HyLighter activities within SAM-LS.

Verbal and nonverbal communication is a critical mediator of performance in team sports and yet there is little extant research in sports that involves direct measures of communication. Our study explored communication within NCAA Division I female tennis doubles teams. Video and audio recordings of players during doubles tennis matches captured the communications that took place between and during points. These recordings were coded and sequential analysis computed using the Discussion Analysis Tool software (Jeong, 2003). Results indicated that most communications were emotional (i.e., > 50%) or action statements (i.e., > 25%). Winning teams exhibited significantly different communication sequences than losing teams. In particular, winning teams had a more homogeneous model of communication, which perhaps makes message interpretation more reliable. Finally, winning teams exchanged twice as many messages as losing teams.

In an effort to better understand learning teams, this study examines the effects of shared mental models on team and individual performance. The results indicate that each team's shared mental model changed significantly over the time that subjects participated in team-based learning activities. The results also showed that the shared mental subcategories (team-related knowledge, skill, attitude, dynamicity, and environment) are strongly correlated to team and individual performance.

Teams are an essential part of successful performance in learning and work environments. Analysis-constructed shared mental model (ACSMM) methodology is a set of techniques where individual mental models are elicited and sharedness is determined not by the individuals who provided their mental models but by an analytical procedure. This method quickly and easily captures mental models with minimal intervention in a team's activities. ACSMM methodology can be provided as feedback to facilitate team performance. This methodology was designed as a qualitative analysis technique for using individually constructed mental model (ICMM) data in the form of concept maps from each team member, analyzing the ICMM components, and constructing a representation of the team's shared mental model using these data. ACSMMs are used to compare team-shared understanding development over time.

This research is an effort to best utilize the interactive anatomical images for instructional purposes based on cognitive load theory. Three studies explored the differential effects of three computer-based instructional strategies that use anatomical cross-sections to enhance the interpretation of radiological images. These strategies include: (1) crosssectional images of the head that can be superimposed on radiological images, (2) transparent highlighting of anatomical structures in radiological images, and (3) crosssectional images of the head with radiological images presented side-by-side. Data collected included: (1) time spent on instruction and on solving test questions, (2) mental effort during instruction and test, and (3) students' performance to identify anatomical structures in radiological images. Participants were 28 freshmen medical students (15 males and 13 females) and 208 biology students (190 females and 18 males). All studies used posttest-only control group design, and the collected data were analyzed by either t test or ANOVA. In self-directed computer-based environments, the strategies that used cross sections to improve students' ability to recognize anatomic structures in radiological images showed no significant positive effects. However, when increasing the complexity of the instructional materials, cross-sectional images imposed a higher cognitive load, as indicated by higher investment of mental effort. There is not enough evidence to claim that the simultaneous combination of cross sections and radiological images has no effect on the identification of anatomical structures in radiological images for novices. Further research that control for students' learning and cognitive style is needed to reach an informative conclusion.

This study investigates how shared mental models (SMMs) change over time in teams of students in a manufacturing engineering course. A complex ill-structured project was given to each team. The objective of the team project was to analyze, test, and propose ways to improve their given manufactured product. Shared mental models were measured in terms of Team-SMM and Task-SMM. Specifically, each Team-SMM and Task-SMM was measured in Team-SMM Structure, Team-SMM Degree, Task-SMM Structure, and Task-SMM Degree. The research question was answered by using one-way repeated measures ANOVA. Results supported that shared mental models (Team-SMM and Task-SMM) changed over time. The changes also varied differently depending on measuring the structure and degree of SMMs.

Many researchers have explored how people share and construct similar mental models in teams. They have claimed that successful team performance depends on a shared mental model of team members about task, team, equipment and situation. Most of the literature has illustrated simplified relationships between a team's mental model and their performance without a valid instrument addressing the confined and relevant constructs of a shared mental model. This paper describes the instrument development steps and the conceptual framework for factors associated with shared mental models. After development and refinement, the instrument was finalized for use to measure team-related knowledge. The final instrument consists of 42 items that are linked to the five emergent factors of shared mental models including general task and team knowledge, general task and communication skills, attitude toward teammates and task, team dynamics and interactions, and team resources and working environment.

In improving the teaching and learning of anatomical sciences, empirical research is needed to develop a set of guiding principles that facilitate the design and development of effective dynamic visualizations. Based on cognitive load theory (CLT), effective learning from dynamic visualizations requires the alignment of instructional conditions with the cognitive architecture of learners and their levels of expertise. By improving the effectiveness and efficiency of dynamic visualizations, students will be able to be more successful in retaining visual information that mediates their understanding of complex and difficult aspects of anatomy. This theoretical paper presents instructional strategies generated by CLT and provides examples of some instructional implications of CLT on the design of dynamic visualizations for teaching and learning of anatomy.

Computer simulation tools are frequently used in engineering design work, and undergraduates are often trained to use these tools as they learn to design systems. The use of new tools in the learning environment should be evaluated to assure that the students are able to use the tools effectively. This study details and demonstrates the use of a Kirkpatrick's Level 1 Evaluation to assess the effectiveness of an instructional environment in which students learn to use a computer simulation tool to perform engineering design work. Specifically, an evaluation was conducted to look at student perceptions of FOODS-LIB—a steady-state food process design tool, its user's manual learning modules, and the implementation of FOODS-LIB in a senior level design course. This evaluation was triangulated with an instructor's assessment of student products generated as the students used the learning modules and designed an ice cream manufacturing process using FOODS-LIB.

This paper describes a study that examined how microbiology students construct knowledge of bacterial identification while using a computer simulation. The purpose of this study was to understand how the simulation affects the cognitive processing of students during thinking, problem solving, and learning about bacterial identification and to determine how the simulation facilitates the learning of a domain-specific problem-solving strategy. As part of an upper-division microbiology course, five students participated in several simulation assignments. The data were collected using think-aloud protocol and video action logs as the students used the simulation. The analysis revealed two major themes that determined the performance of the students: Simulation Usage—how the students used the software features and Problem-Solving Strategy Development—the strategy level students started with and the skill level they achieved when they completed their use of the simulation. Several conclusions emerged from the analysis of the data: (i) The simulation affects various aspects of cognitive processing by creating an environment that makes it possible to practice the application of a problem-solving strategy. The simulation was used as an environment that allowed students to practice the cognitive skills required to solve an unknown. (ii) Identibacter (the computer simulation) may be considered to be a cognitive tool to facilitate the learning of a bacterial identification problem-solving strategy. (iii) The simulation characteristics did support student learning of a problem-solving strategy. (iv) Students demonstrated problem-solving strategy development specific to bacterial identification. (v) Participants demonstrated an improved performance from their repeated use of the simulation.

Research has shown that emotions are directly linked to cognition and there is a strong correlation between affect and learning. This notion along with recent technological advancements has prompted researchers from many disciplines to turn their attention toward adding an affective component to human-computer dialog. This chapter discusses emotion assessment methods, recent empirical research related to examining students’ affective states in entertainment and educational games, and conceptual, methodological, and technological issues associated with developing emotion recognition models. An overview of emotion recognition research suggests that there is little consensus on what emotions should be measured and how to do it. Moreover, it is still not clear how emotions affect human learning and performance.

An online social annotation tool was implemented in the context of utilizing question-answering tasks with reading documents. The tool and tasks were used in order to foster students’ cognitive development with higher-order thinking, critical analysis, and development of sophisticated arguments in English writing. The effects of the tool on students’ mental models as well as their motivation for and achievement in a college argument and persuasion course were investigated. The findings are discussed along with implications and possibilities for future studies.

The main focus of this chapter is the use of concept mapping, broadly defined to include both graphical and textual representations, for assessment in collaborative learning contexts. Several tools developed by the authors integrate concept mapping as the primary means of assessing progress of learning in complex and problem-solving domains. This chapter presents an overview of the theoretical and empirical foundation for these assessment tools, and discusses their applicability to collaborative learning environments (CLE).

Researchers have claimed that successful team performance depends on shared mental models. While there are a number of techniques that have been employed to measure shared knowledge, Johnson and colleagues (2007) developed and validated an instrument for measuring team-related knowledge. This chapter focuses on the application of the Team Assessment and Diagnostic Instrument (TADI). Using the results of this five-factor model (including general task and team knowledge, general task and communication skills, attitude toward teammates and task, team dynamics and interactions, and team resources and working environment), TADI is used to assess the current state of team alignment with respect to the five team-related knowledge factors. Based on the alignment and degree of response, this measure can be used to assess the level of team synergy as well as determine misalignment in specific areas of teammates’ mental models. With this information, team members, leaders, and coaches can better anticipate team problems thereby guiding the selection of team performance interventions ultimately mitigating team problems and improving team learning and performance.

This chapter proposes a design framework that applies Merrill’s first principles of instruction to an online college English writing course. The framework consists of five interrelated principles grounded in learning and instructional theories and research; it emphasizes task-centered instructional design. In addition, as a way of learners’ practice and evaluation of writing within a task-centered approach, the use of peer review is articulated in the framework. Moreover, the measurement of learners’ mental models is also described with its benefits on the provision of feedback on individual learning progression. The framework provides solid directions for research and development for the improvement of English writing.

Working in teams is an important aspect of clinical practice and medical education. Medical educators have embraced instructional strategies that use multiple learners to facilitate learning. Howev...

This chapter proposes an instructional game design framework based on the 4C/ID-model and cognitive load theory, its associated theoretical foundation. The proposed systematic design framework serves as the processing link to connect games’ powerful characteristics in enhancing learning experience with desired learning outcomes. In this chapter we focus on the cognitive aspect of learning outcome: the development of transferable schema. This chapter introduces design guidelines to attain specific game characteristic by prioritizing the design components in 4C/ID-model. Each game characteristic consists of three levels of design emphasis: preliminary, secondary, and tertiary. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to initiate a series of dialogue between cognitive learning outcome, systematic instructional design, and instructional game design thereby seeking to improve the overall game design and instructional efficiency.

In this chapter, we describe our research and development efforts relating to eliciting, representing, and analyzing how individuals and small groups conceptualize complex problems. The methods described herein have all been developed and are in various states of being validated. In addition, the methods we describe have been automated and most have been integrated in an online model-based set of tools called HIMATT (Highly Interactive Model-based Assessment Tools and Technologies; available for research purposes at http://himatt.ezw.uni-freiburg.de/cgi-bin/hrun/himatt.pl and soon to be available on a server at Florida State University). HIMATT continues to expand in terms of the tools and technologies included. Our methods and tools represent an approach to learning and instruction that is now embedded in many of the graduate courses at Florida State University and also at the University of Freiburg. We call our approach model-based because it integrates representations of mental models and internal cognitive processes with tools that are used to (a) assess progress of learning, and (b) provide the basis for informative and reflective feedback during instruction.

With the increasing use of computers in the classroom and the advancement of information technology, a requirement to investigate and evaluate different strategies for the presentation of verbal information in interactive and dynamic visualizations has risen to a high level of importance. There is a need for research efforts that apply cognitive load theory (CLT), cognitive learning strategies, and established principles of multimedia design to conduct empirical research that will add to our knowledge of designing and developing dynamic visualizations for teaching and learning anatomy. The impact of improved teaching and learning of anatomical sciences and the development of a set of guiding principles to facilitate the design and development of effective dynamic visualizations represent a significant achievement for medical education with wide application. This theoretical paper presents the foundations of CLT, cognitive learning strategies, and principles of multimedia design to guide the needed research on dynamic visualizations.

This study evaluated the use of computer-based interactive imagery on students' achievement scores when compared with paper-based static imagery. It also assessed students' perceptions about the two imagery strategies and their different components. Sixty-four freshmen veterinary students (50 females, 14 males), enrolled in a comparative anatomy course, volunteered to participate in the study. This study used a pretest/posttest comparison group design and data was examined by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). A close-ended questionnaire was administered to collect students' perceptions about the two imagery strategies. The mean difference in students' perceptions between the two strategies was analyzed using a two-tailed paired t-test. No significant differences were observed between computer-based interactive imagery and paper-based static imagery in the immediate recall of anatomical information. There was a significant difference in students' opinions toward the two strategies: students perceived computer-based interactive imagery as a better strategy in the assimilation of anatomical information than paper-based static imagery. Clin. Anat. 18:457–464, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

In an effort to design and implement effective anatomy educational programs, this study was conducted to evaluate students' perceptions toward using two computer-based self-directed instructional modules (e.g., digestive system and canine skull) that were designed utilizing interactive imagery strategy for teaching and learning veterinary anatomy. Sixty-eight freshmen veterinary students and one graduate student participated in this study. Open-ended and close-ended questionnaires were administered to evaluate the utilization of computer-based interactive imagery strategy in developing anatomy instructional programs, and to collect data about the students' perceptions toward the use of interactive images in teaching and learning of anatomy. Means and standard deviations were calculated and analyzed for close-ended items. The open-ended questionnaire items were analyzed to identify shared patterns or themes in the students' experience after using the two instructional anatomy modules. Students reported positive attitudes toward the interactive imagery strategy used in the development of computer-based anatomy modules. Based on our findings, this study outlines the characteristics of effective instructional images that will serve as guidelines for the preparation and selection of anatomical images, as well as, how to utilize these images to develop computer-based instructional anatomy programs. Students perceived interactive imagery as an effective design strategy that helped them learn anatomical concepts. Clin. Anat. 18:68–76, 2005. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.