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BackgroundTrichoderma reesei is an organism extensively used in the bioethanol industry, owing to its capability to produce enzymes capable of breaking down holocellulose into simple sugars. The uptake of carbohydrates generated from cellulose breakdown is crucial to induce the signaling cascade that triggers cellulase production. However, the sugar transporters involved in this process in T. reesei remain poorly identified and characterized.ResultsTo address this gap, this study used temporal membrane proteomics analysis to identify five known and nine putative sugar transporters that may be involved in cellulose degradation by T. reesei. Docking analysis pointed out potential ligands for the putative sugar transporter Tr44175. Further functional validation of this transporter was carried out in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The results showed that Tr44175 transports a variety of sugar molecules, including cellobiose, cellotriose, cellotetraose, and sophorose.ConclusionThis study has unveiled a transporter Tr44175 capable of transporting cellobiose, cellotriose, cellotetraose, and sophorose. Our study represents the first inventory of T. reesei sugar transportome once exposed to cellulose, offering promising potential targets for strain engineering in the context of bioethanol production.

The decline in crop yields is attributed to uneven chemical fertilization practices and poor soil fertility. From a sustainability perspective, the application of beneficial microorganisms alongside a blend of inorganic and organic fertilizers significantly influences crop productivity and food security. Concerns within the scientific community arise from the haphazard and negligent use of fertilizers. Farming communities predominantly reliant on chemical fertilizers often overlook the application of organic alternatives, leading to a gradual decline in soil organic matter and native nutrient levels, ultimately resulting in decreased crop yields. In diverse cropping systems, the amalgamation of chemical, biological, and organic sources sustains soil health, replenishes nutrients, and optimizes crop yields. Plant residues enhance soil microbial activity, expedite nutrient cycling and availability, and aid in preserving soil health through carbon sequestration. Regular utilization of plant residues and other organic materials enriches soil organic matter content, enhancing soil health and productivity. Integrating organic and chemical fertilizers presents a potential avenue to enhance maize and soybean yields in maize-wheat cropping systems, subsequently benefiting wheat crop productivity and profitability. The efficacy of specific soil nutrients can be heightened by combining organic sources with various chemical fertilization techniques. Hence, incorporating phosphorus fertilization alongside phosphorus-mobilizing and solubilizing agents (such as Trichoderma & PSB), along with the integrated management of peach waste materials including residues, compost, and biochar, is imperative for promoting crop growth, increasing seed yields, and fostering environmental sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, phylloremediation has emerged as a highly effective method for eliminating air pollutants, particularly polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). When PAHs accumulate on the phyllosphere, they significantly impact the fungal communities residing on leaf surfaces. This study aimed to investigate how pollution distribution patterns affect the diversity and PAH-degrading abilities of phyllosphere fungi, alongside identifying suitable mathematical models for PAH degradation. Leaf samples from two locations, Maradana and Sapugaskanda, were identified as having the highest PAH concentrations through principal component analysis. The fungal diversity in these highly contaminated regions was varied, with dominant species exhibiting greater PAH-degrading capabilities than those in less polluted areas. Thirty-five morphologically different epiphytic fungal strains were isolated on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) medium using the sample leaf wash. Two different fungal strains were selected as the best PAH degraders among those 35 different strains. These fungal strains were identified as Trichoderma harzianum P4M-16, and Fusarium solani P11M-46 based on ITS sequence data. Notably, these fungal species were more prevalent in highly polluted urban areas compared to less contaminated sites. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis revealed that these two fungal species degrade PAHs more efficiently than others. Their kinetics assays demonstrated alignment with four degradation models when breaking down phenanthrene, naphthalene, pyrene, and anthracene. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that these fungi function as endophytes, extending their mycelium into the core leaf tissue layers beyond the epidermis. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) analysis indicated that F. solani P11M-46 produced non-toxic byproducts during the breakdown of phenanthrene and anthracene, confirming their eco-friendly nature. Overall, our findings suggest the promising potential of using phyllosphere fungi in bioremediation processes for environmental pollutants such as PAHs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in genomics and transcriptomics accompanying the rapid accumulation of omics data have provided new tools that have transformed and expanded the traditional concepts of model fungi. Evolutionary genomics and transcriptomics have flourished with the use of classical and newer fungal models that facilitate the study of diverse topics encompassing fungal biology and development. Technological advances have also created the opportunity to obtain and mine large datasets. One such continuously growing dataset is that of the Sordariomycetes, which exhibit a richness of species, ecological diversity, economic importance, and a profound research history on amenable models. Currently, 3,574 species of this class have been sequenced, comprising nearly one-third of the available ascomycete genomes. Among these genomes, multiple representatives of the model genera Fusarium, Neurospora, and Trichoderma are present. In this review, we examine recently published studies and data on the Sordariomycetes that have contributed novel insights to the field of fungal evolution via integrative analyses of the genetic, pathogenic, and other biological characteristics of the fungi. Some of these studies applied ancestral state analysis of gene expression among divergent lineages to infer regulatory network models, identify key genetic elements in fungal sexual development, and investigate the regulation of conidial germination and secondary metabolism. Such multispecies investigations address challenges in the study of fungal evolutionary genomics derived from studies that are often based on limited model genomes and that primarily focus on the aspects of biology driven by knowledge drawn from a few model species. Rapidly accumulating information and expanding capabilities for systems biological analysis of Big Data are setting the stage for the expansion of the concept of model systems from unitary taxonomic species/genera to inclusive clusters of well-studied models that can facilitate both the in-depth study of specific lineages and also investigation of trait diversity across lineages. The Sordariomycetes class, in particular, offers abundant omics data and a large and active global research community. As such, the Sordariomycetes can form a core omics clade, providing a blueprint for the expansion of our knowledge of evolution at the genomic scale in the exciting era of Big Data and artificial intelligence, and serving as a reference for the future analysis of different taxonomic levels within the fungal kingdom. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advancement of fungal biocontrol agents depends on replacing cereal grains with low-cost agro-industrial byproducts for their economical mass production and development of stable formulations. We propose an innovative approach to develop a rice flour-based formulation of the beneficial biocontrol agent Trichoderma asperelloides CMAA1584 designed to simulate a micro-bioreactor within the concept of full biorefinery process, affording in situ conidiation, extended shelf-life, and effective control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a devastating pathogen of several dicot agricultural crops worldwide. Rice flour is an inexpensive and underexplored byproduct derived from broken rice after milling, capable of sustaining high yields of conidial production through our optimized fermentation-formulation route. Conidial yield was mainly influenced by nitrogen content (0.1% w/w) added to the rice meal coupled with the fermentor type. Hydrolyzed yeast was the best nitrogen source yielding 2.6 × 109 colony-forming units (CFU)/g within 14 days. Subsequently, GControl, GLecithin, GBreak-Thru, GBentonite, and GOrganic compost+Break-Thru formulations were obtained by extrusion followed by air-drying and further assessed for their potential to induce secondary sporulation in situ, storage stability, and efficacy against Sclerotinia. GControl, GBreak-Thru, GBentonite, and GOrganic compost+Break-Thru stood out with the highest number of CFU after sporulation upon re-hydration on water-agar medium. Shelf-life of formulations GControl and GBentonite remained consistent for > 3 months at ambient temperature, while in GBentonite and GOrganic compost+Break-Thru formulations remained viable for 24 months during refrigerated storage. Formulations exhibited similar efficacy in suppressing the myceliogenic germination of Sclerotinia irrespective of their concentration tested (5 × 104 to 5 × 106 CFU/g of soil), resulting in 79.2 to 93.7% relative inhibition. Noteworthily, all 24-month-old formulations kept under cold storage successfully suppressed sclerotia. This work provides an environmentally friendly bioprocess method using rice flour as the main feedstock to develop waste-free granular formulations of Trichoderma conidia that are effective in suppressing Sclerotinia while also improving biopesticide shelf-life. Key points: • Innovative "bioreactor-in-a-granule" system for T. asperelloides is devised. • Dry granules of aerial conidia remain highly viable for 24 months at 4 °C. • Effective control of white-mold sclerotia via soil application of Trichoderma-based granules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fusarium wilt and gummosis disease is a major concern in Subabul plantations, resulting in quantitative and qualitative wood losses to the paper and pulp industry. Growers currently rely on agrochemicals, which are not environmentally safe. Therefore, developing a sustainable control strategy employing biocontrol agents is necessary. For this, the investigation was performed to identify native Trichoderma strains from Subabul rhizospheric soil having antagonistic, disease control efficiency, and PGPR attributes. Six antagonistic Trichoderma (TR1 to TR6) strains were isolated and their efficacy was tested against Fusarium in-vitro by dual plate technique and volatile metabolites. Among these, Trichoderma strains TR1 and TR2 were found efficient in counteracting the growth of F. equiseti (70–90% inhibition) compared to control. The effectiveness was primarily attributed to the increased production of volatile metabolites, siderophores, and the ability to solubilise the nutrients (P and K). Further, six potent Trichoderma strains were identified as T. asperellum (TR1, TR2, TR3, TR6), and T. hamatum (TR4, TR5) through rDNA ITS gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. These isolates were mass-multiplied, formulated using Talc powder followed by bio-priming in rooting media. The application of Trichoderma into rooting media reduced the wilt disease caused by artificial inoculation of F. equiseti. Further, TR1 and TR2 were found promising with conferred protection against wilt, enhanced survival rate (10–15%), and improved growth compared to untreated control. Application of adapted TR1 and TR2 antagonists in rooting media during clonal multiplication has the potential wilt control efficiency, enhanced survival rate, and plant growth promotion in Subabul. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integrated pest management (IPM) is a comprehensive approach to managing diseases, focusing on combining various strategies to reduce pathogen populations effectively and in an environmentally conscious way. We investigated the effects of IPM on beneficial microbial populations and its relationship with pathogen populations in both direct-seeded rice (DSR) and transplanted rice (TR) systems. This study demonstrates that IPM practices have significantly higher populations of beneficial microbes, such as Trichoderma harzianum and Pseudomonas fluorescens, and lower level of the pathogen Fusarium verticillioides compared to non-IPM (farmer practices). The average mean population of T. harzianum was 6.38 x 10³ CFU/g in IPM compared to 3.22 x 10³ CFU/g in non-IPM during 2019 in TR at Bambawad. P. fluorescens mean population in 2019 was significantly higher in IPM (4.67 x 10³ CFU/g) than in non-IPM (3.82 x 10³ CFU/g) at the Karnal location in DSR. The F. verticillioides populations were significantly lower in IPM fields (9.46 x 10³ CFU/g) compared to non-IPM fields (11.48 x 10³ CFU/g) during 2017 at Haridwar in TR. Over three years, a significant increase in the populations of beneficial microbes in IPM plots was observed in all three locations of both TR and DSR, highlighting the sustainable impact of IPM practices. Disease dynamics analysis revealed that IPM effectively managed key diseases in both DSR and TR systems, with significant correlations between microbial density and disease severity. A significant positive correlation was recorded between F. verticillioides population and bakanae incidence at all three locations. Sheath blight incidence was negatively correlated with P. fluorescens population in both TR and DSR. In DSR, bacterial blight and brown spot diseases are reduced with the increased population of T. harzianum. Bioagents T. harzianum and P. fluorescens reduced disease incidence, underscoring the role of beneficial microbes in disease suppression and their importance for sustainable production using IPM practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Trichoderma species establish symbiotic relationships with plants through both parasitic and mutualistic mechanisms. While some Trichoderma species act as plant pathogenic fungi, others utilize various strategies to protect and enhance plant growth. Methods: Phylogenetic positions of new species of Trichoderma were determined through multi-gene analysis relying on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of the ribosomal DNA, the translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1-α) gene, and the RNA polymerase II (rpb2) gene. Additionally, pathogenicity experiments were conducted, and the aggressiveness of each isolate was evaluated based on the area of the cross-section of the infected site. Results: In this study, 13 Trichoderma species, including 9 known species and 4 new species, namely, T. delicatum, T. robustum, T. perfasciculatum, and T. subulatum were isolated from the diseased tubers of Gastrodia elata in Yunnan, China. Among the known species, T. hamatum had the highest frequency. T. delicatum belonged to the Koningii clade. T. robustum and T. perfasciculatum were assigned to the Virens clade. T. subulatum emerged as a new member of the Spirale clade. Pathogenicity experiments were conducted on the new species T. robustum, T. delicatum, and T. perfasciculatum, as well as the known species T. hamatum, T. atroviride, and T. harzianum. The infective abilities of different Trichoderma species on G. elata varied, indicating that Trichoderma was a pathogenic fungus causing black rot disease in G. elata. Discussion: This study provided the morphological characteristics of new species and discussed the morphological differences with phylogenetically proximate species, laying the foundation for research aimed at preventing and managing diseases that affect G. elata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although potato virus Y (PVY) is the most serious virus-infecting potato plants worldwide, the losses concurred by it remain unmanageable due to the lack of efficient anti-PVY agents. Hence, the objective of this study was to assess the antiviral properties of secondary metabolite compounds obtained from culture filtrates of four Trichoderma spp. isolates. The assessment was conducted using computational methods, including molecular docking, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) analysis, as well as molecular dynamics simulations. The aim was to develop novel and effective agents for combating PVY. Results: The GC–MS analysis of the studied Trichoderma spp. secondary metabolites revealed 24 compounds with relative amounts exceeding 10%. Molecular docking was then performed using MOE software to evaluate the activity of these compounds against the PVY protein coat (PDB-ID: 6HXX). Ningnanmycin and ribavirin, known plant virus inhibitors, were employed as reference ligands for comparison. Among the compounds tested, C9, C10, C13, and C19 exhibited superior docking scores, root mean square deviation (RMSD) values, and binding modes compared to the reference ligands. In addition, these compounds successfully passed the ADMET analysis. Further investigation focused on compounds C13 and C19, which underwent in-depth analysis through MDs for 100 ns. The MDs trajectories demonstrated that both complexes exhibited favorable stability, compactness, and binding modes throughout the simulation period. However, the C19/PVY-CP complex outperformed the C13 complex in all calculated parameters such as RMSD, root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), radius of gyration (RoG), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Interestingly, these findings aligned with the results obtained from the docking analysis, indicating that C9 and C10 possess high potential against PVY, as they exhibited binding modes like that of C19. Conclusion: These promising outcomes provide a solid foundation for considering the potential use of compounds C9, C10, C13, and C19 as antiviral agents. Further experimental validation and in-depth studies are warranted to assess the efficacy and safety of these compounds and their potential as antiviral therapeutics. To our knowledge, this is the first report to study the biological activities of the Trichoderma-based bioactive compounds against PVY using computational techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary All plant populations fluctuate in time. Apart from the dynamics imposed by external forces such as climate, these fluctuations can be driven by endogenous processes taking place within the community. In this study, we aimed to identify potential role of soil‐borne microbial communities in driving endogenous fluctuations of plant populations. We combined a unique, 35‐yr long abundance data of 11 common plant species from a species‐rich mountain meadow with development of their soil microbiome (pathogenic fungi, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and oomycetes) observed during 4 yr of experimental cultivation in monocultures. Plant species which abundance fluctuated highly in the field (particularly legumes) accumulated plant pathogens in their soil mycobiome. We also identified increasing proportion of mycoparasitic fungi under highly fluctuating legume species, which may indicate an adaptation of these species to mitigate the detrimental effects of pathogens. Our study documented that long‐term fluctuations in the abundance of plant species in grassland communities can be explained by the accumulation of plant pathogens in plant–soil microbiome. By contrast, we found little evidence of the role of mutualists in plant population fluctuations. These findings offer new insights for understanding mechanisms driving both long‐term vegetation dynamics and patterns of species coexistence and richness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichoderma afroharzianum, a ubiquitous soil-borne fungus found on plant roots and decaying residues, displays competitive traits and mycoparasitic behavior against diverse microorganisms. Selected strains of this fungus are known in agriculture for their beneficial effects on plant growth and as bio-fungicides. However, recent findings have pinpointed Trichoderma afroharzianum as the causal agent behind maize ear rot disease in Europe since 2018, notably impacting maize cobs in Germany, France, and Italy. This study aims to evaluate the severity of Trichoderma ear rot disease on maize fresh matter content and specific quality parameters under semi-field conditions. Two distinct maize varieties were artificially inoculated with a pathogenic Trichoderma isolate at the flowering stage using needle pin or silk channel methods. Disease severity was assessed visually at the time of harvest based on the percentage of infected kernels according to EPPO Guidelines (PP 1/285). Fresh matter content and quality parameters such as alpha-amylase activity, C/N ratio, water, and sugar content were analyzed. Results showed that needle pin inoculation led to higher disease severity (60%) compared to silk channel inoculation (39%). Cob weight decreased significantly at the highest disease severity level by up to 50% compared to control plants. In both varieties, alpha-amylase activity increased significantly with higher Trichoderma disease severity, resulting in starch degradation and increased glucose release. The germination rate was severely affected by the infection, with only 22% of grains germinating, and the seedlings showed shortened and deformed growth. This is the first report on Trichoderma ear rot infection and its effect on fresh matter content and quality parameters in maize after artificial inoculation under field conditions. The results address an important knowledge gap and provide valuable insights into the infection pathway and impact on maize quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichoderma reesei RUT-C30 was cultivated on differentially pretreated rice straw and pure cellulose as a carbon source/inducer for cellulase production, and the enzymes were evaluated for hydrolysis of sequential acid and alkali pretreated rice straw. Growth on pretreated rice straw enhanced protein secretion and cellulase activities compared to pure cellulose as a carbon source. The yield of cellulolytic enzymes was higher for alkali pretreated rice straw (ALP-RS), while H2O2-treated (HP-RS) could not induce cellulases to a larger level compared to pure cellulose. Protein concentration was 3.5-fold higher on ALP-RS as compared to pure cellulose, with a maximum filter-paper cellulase (FPase) activity of 1.76 IU/ml and carboxy-methyl cellulase (CMCase) activity of 40.16 IU/ml (2.18 fold higher). Beta-glucosidase (BGL) activity was more or less the same with the different substrates and supplementation of heterologous BGL could result in a quantum jump in hydrolytic efficiencies, which in the case of ALP-RS induced enzymes was 34% (increased from 69.26% to 92.51%). The use of lignocellulosic biomass (LCB) itself as a substrate for the production of cellulase is advantageous not only in terms of raw material costs but also for obtaining a more suitable enzyme profile for biomass hydrolysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aimed to assess Rhizobium tropici, Azospirillum brasilense, and Trichoderma asperellum co-inoculation effects, besides N-fertilizer supplementation as determined by the nitrogen sufficiency index (NSI) on the development of common bean. Field trials were carried out in a randomized block design with four replicates at three different locations. Treatments consisted of sole or combined inoculation of R. tropici, A. brasilense, and T. asperellum, besides N-fertilization. Seeds were inoculated with R. tropici and/or T. asperellum using 10 g of each inoculant kg−1 of seed. At the phenological stage V2/V3 A. brasilense was inoculated using 300 ml ha−1. Nitrogen sufficiency index (NSI), number of nodules (NN), nodule dry mass (NDM), root dry mass (RDM), shoot dry mass (SDM), number of pods (NP), number of grains (NG), and grain yield (GY) were assessed. NN and NDM were higher under R. tropici, A. brasilense, and T. asperellum co-inoculation. This same co-inoculation provided RDM and SDM similar to the use of 120 kg ha−1 of N. R. tropici, A. brasilense, and T. asperellum co-inoculation supplemented with N-fertilizer at the phenological stage R5, provide NP and NG similar to 120 kg ha−1 N, and to 80 kg ha−1 N supplemented with N at the phenological stage V4. NSI was effective to determine the N needs of common bean. The co-inoculation of two doses ha−1 of R. tropici, three doses ha−1 of A. brasilense and two doses ha−1 of T. asperellum, supplemented with N-fertilizer at phenological stage V4 based on NSI, stimulated growth and yield components of common bean, providing GY equivalent to the N-fertilized treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternaria leaf spot is one of the most destructive disease and cause huge economic losses in cauliflower. In the quest of ecofriendly disease management against Alternaria leaf spot of cauliflower, four isolates of Trichoderma, namely T. viride, T. harzianum I-6 strain, T. harzianum IMQ-8 and T. koningii were evaluated for their antagonistic potential against Alternaria leaf spot disease of cauliflower during the year 2020 at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Neri, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh. In a dual culture assay, T. harzianum I-6 strain inhibited the mycelial growth of Alternaria brassicicola by 80.64%, followed by T. viride (78.49%). Root dip treatment of cauliflower seedlings with T. harzianum I-6 strain was found to be most effective in plants challenged with the pathogenic fungus i.e. A. brassicicola and resulted in a reduction in disease incidence and disease severity of 32.70% and 40.00%, respectively compared to pathogen-challenged control plants. It was followed by IMQ-8 strain of T. harzianum with 29.49 and 34.73% reduction in disease incidence and disease index, respectively. T. koningii was least effective against the disease. Among all Trichoderma treatments, the maximum plant weight of 6.84 g plant-1 was obtained by using T. harzianum I-6 strain, followed by T. harzianum IMQ-8 strain, T. viride and T. koningii with 6.45, 5.62 and 4.33 g plant-1, respectively. In comparison, plants inoculated with the pathogen weighed 3.72 g plant-1. Hence, seedling treatment with T. harzianum has the potential for eco-friendly management of Alternaria leaf spot of cauliflower. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Commercial/chemical pesticides are available to control Fusarium wilt of chickpea, but these antifungals have numerous environmental and human health hazards. Amongst various organic alternatives, use of antagonistic fungi like Trichoderma, is the most promising option. Although, Trichoderma spp. are known to control Fusarium wilt in chickpea but there are no reports that indicate the biocontrol efficacy of indigenous Trichoderma spp. against the local pathogen, in relation to environmental conditions. Methods: In the present study, biological control activity of Trichoderma species formulations viz., Trichoderma asperellum, Trichoderma harzianum (strain 1), and Trichoderma harzianum (strain 2), either singly or in the form of consortia, was investigated against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceris, the cause of Fusarium wilt in chickpea, in multiyear pot trials under open field conditions. The antagonistic effect of Trichoderma spp. was first evaluated in in vitro dual culture experiments. Then the effects of Trichoderma as well as F. oxysporum, were investigated on the morphological parameters, disease incidence (DI), and disease severity (DS) of chickpea plants grown in pots. Results: In dual culture experiments, all the Trichoderma species effectively reduced the mycelial growth of F. oxysporum. T. asperellum, T. harzianum (strain 1), and T. harzianum(strain 2) declined the mycelial growth of F. oxysporumby 37.6%, 40%, and 42%. In open field pot trials, the infestation of F. oxysporum in chickpea plants significantly reduced the morphological growth of chickpea. However, the application of T. asperellum, T. harzianum (strain 1), and T. harzianum (strain 2), either singly or in the form of consortia, significantly overcome the deleterious effects of the pathogen, thereby resulted in lower DI (22.2% and 11.1%) and DS (86% and 92%), and ultimately improved the shoot length, shoot fresh weight and shoot dry weight by 69% and 72%, 67% and 73%, 68% and 75%, during the years 1 and 2, respectively, in comparison with infested control. The present study concludes the usefulness and efficacy of Trichoderma species in controlling wilt disease of chickpea plants under variable weather conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollution of arable land with heavy metals is a worldwide problem. Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic metal that poses a severe threat to humans' and animals' health and lives. Plants can easily absorb Cd from the soil, and plant-based food is the main means of exposure to this hazardous element for humans and animals. Phytoremediation is a promising plant-based approach to removing heavy metals from the soil, and plant growth-promoting micro-organisms such as the fungi Trichoderma can enhance the ability of plants to accumulate metals. Inoculation of Avena sativa L. (oat) with Trichoderma viride enhances germination and seedling growth in the presence of Cd and, in this study, the growth of 6-month-old oat plants in Cd-contaminated soil was not increased by inoculation with T. viride, but a 1.7-fold increase in yield was observed. The content of Cd in oat shoots depended on the Cd content in the soil. Still, it was unaffected by the inoculation with T. viride. A. sativa metallothioneins (AsMTs) participate in plant–fungi interaction, however, their role in this study depended on MT type and Cd concentration. The inoculation of A. sativa with T. viride could be a promising approach to obtaining a high yield in Cd-contaminated soil without increasing the Cd content in the plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The persistence and ubiquity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the environment necessitate effective remediation strategies. Hence, this study investigated the potential of purified Laccases, TlFLU1L and TpFLU12L, from two indigenous fungi Trichoderma lixii FLU1 (TlFLU1) and Talaromyces pinophilus FLU12 (TpFLU12), respectively for the oxidation and detoxification of anthracene. Anthracene was degraded with vmax values of 3.51 ± 0.06 mg/L/h and 3.44 ± 0.06 mg/L/h, and Km values of 173.2 ± 0.06 mg/L and 73.3 ± 0.07 mg/L by TlFLU1L and TpFLU12L, respectively. The addition of a mediator compound 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) to the reaction system significantly increased the degradation of anthracene, with up to a 2.9-fold increase in vmax value and up to threefold decrease in Km values of TlFLU1L and TpFLU12L. The GC–MS analysis of the metabolites suggests that anthracene degradation follows one new pathway unique to the ABTS system—hydroxylation and carboxylation of C-1 and C-2 position of anthracene to form 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, before undergoing dioxygenation and side chain removal to form chromone which was later converted into benzoic acid and CO2. This pathway contrasts with the common dioxygenation route observed in the free Laccase system, which is observed in the second degradation pathways. Furthermore, toxicity tests using V. parahaemolyticus and HT-22 cells, respectively, demonstrated the non-toxic nature of Laccase-ABTS-mediated metabolites. Intriguingly, analysis of the expression level of Alzheimer's related genes in HT-22 cells exposed to degradation products revealed no induction of neurotoxicity unlike untreated cells. These findings propose a paradigm shift for bioremediation by highlighting the Laccase-ABTS system as a promising green technology due to its efficiency with the discovery of a potentially less harmful degradation pathway, and the production of non-toxic metabolites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The soil-borne fungi, Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii, are major pathogens of Brassicae crops. This study was performed to clarify the relationship between the accumulation pattern of the genus Trichoderma and disease suppression in frequently inoculated soils with binucleate Rhizoctonia (BNR), Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. Results: As compared to the control group, five Trichoderma virens strains isolated from soil inoculated with R. solani or BNR significantly reduced the severity of S. rolfsii (85.6–100% covering percentage) and R. solani (95.7–100% covering percentage). Similarly, five T. hamatum strains obtained from soil inoculated with R. solani were shown to be highly suppressive against S. rolfsii (83.9–97.1% covering percentages) and R. solani (60.2–96.2% covering percentages). Four out of five T. hamatum strains obtained from soil infected with S. rolfsii exhibited considerable suppression against S. rolfsii (63.7–91.2% covering percentages), while the SM5 strain did not. The phylogenetic analysis of the TEF and ITS regions of Trichoderma hamatum revealed that most isolates were classified into the same cluster with homology of 99–100%. Five strains of each T. virens and T. hamatum were isolated from the suppressive soil with high antagonistic potentials against R. solani and S. rolfsii. Suppression and antagonistic activity of T. hamatum isolated from soil frequently inoculated with sterile barley grains were negligible, whereas T. hamatum isolated from frequently inoculated soil with BNR and R. solani demonstrated considerable suppression of the pathogens and antagonistic activity. Accumulation and quantification of T. virens and T. hamatum were confirmed using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). Conclusion: In conclusion, disease suppression in frequently inoculated soil with BNR, R. solani and S. rolfsii was due to Trichoderma spp. accumulated selectively in each replicate of soil inoculation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Phosphorus (P) readily forms insoluble complexes in soil, thereby inhibiting the absorption and utilization of this essential nutrient by plants. Phosphorus deficiency can significantly impede the growth of forage grass. While Trichoderma viride (T. viride) has been recognized for promoting the assimilation of otherwise unobtainable nutrients, its impact on P uptake remains understudied. Consequently, it is imperative to gain a more comprehensive insight into the role of T. viride in facilitating the uptake and utilization of insoluble P in forage grass. Methods: This research explored the influence of T. viride inoculation on P absorption and the growth of Chloris virgata (C. virgata) across various P sources. We treated plants with control P (P), tricalcium phosphate (TCP), calcium phytate (PHY), and low P (LP), with and without T. viride inoculation (P+T, TCP+T, PHY+T, LP+T). We analyzed photosynthesis parameters, growth indices, pigment accumulation, P content, leaf acid phosphatase activity. Results: Results demonstrated that T. viride inoculation alleviated inhibition of photosynthesis, reduced leaf acid phosphatase activity, and enhanced growth of C. virgata in the presence of insoluble P sources. Additionally, T. viride inoculation enabled the plants to extract more available P from insoluble P sources, as evidenced by a substantial increase in P content: shoot P content surged by 58.23 to 59.08%, and root P content rose by 55.13 to 55.2%. Biomass P-use efficiency (PUE) declined by 38% upon inoculation with T. viride compared to the noninoculated insoluble P sources, paralleled by a reduction in photosynthetic P-use efficiency (PPUE) by 26 to 29%. Inoculation under insoluble P sources further triggered a lower allocation to root biomass (25 to 26%) and a higher investment in shoot biomass (74 to 75%). However, its application under low P condition curtailed the growth of C. virgata. Discussion: Our results suggest that T. viride inoculation represents an innovative approach for plants to acquire available P from insoluble P sources, thereby promoting growth amid environmental P limitations. This insight is crucial for comprehending the synergy among forage grass, P, and T. viride. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichoderma spp. is known for its ability to enhance plant growth and suppress disease, but the mechanisms for its interaction with host plants and pathogens remain unclear. This study investigated the transcriptomics and metabolomics of peanut plants (Arachis hypogaea L.) inoculated with Trichoderma harzianum QT20045, in the absence and presence of the stem rot pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii JN3011. Under the condition without pathogen stress, the peanut seedlings inoculated with QT20045 showed improved root length and plant weight, increased indole acetic acid (IAA) production, and reduced ethylene level, with more active 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate acid (ACC) synthase (ACS) and ACC oxidase (ACO), compared with the non-inoculated control. Under the pathogen stress, the biocontrol efficacy of QT20045 against S. rolfsii was 78.51%, with a similar effect on plant growth, and IAA and ethylene metabolisms to the condition with no biotic stress. Transcriptomic analysis of peanut root revealed that Trichoderma inoculation upregulated the expression of certain genes in the IAA family but downregulated the genes in the ACO family (AhACO1 and AhACO) and ACS family (AhACS3 and AhACS1) consistently in the absence and presence of pathogens. During pathogen stress, QT20045 inoculation leads to the downregulation of the genes in the pectinesterase family to keep the host plant's cell wall stable, along with upregulation of the AhSUMM2 gene to activate plant defense responses. In vitro antagonistic test confirmed that QT20045 suppressed S. rolfsii growth through mechanisms of mycelial entanglement, papillary protrusions, and decomposition. Our findings highlight that Trichoderma inoculation is a promising tool for sustainable agriculture, offering multiple benefits from pathogen control to enhanced plant growth and soil health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the significant challenges in organic cultivation of edible mushrooms is the control of invasive Trichoderma species that can hinder the mushroom production and lead to economic losses. Here, we present a novel loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay coupled with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for rapid colorimetric detection of Trichoderma spp. The specificity of LAMP primers designed on the tef1 gene was validated in silico and through gel-electrophoresis on Trichoderma harzianum and non-target soil-borne fungal and bacterial strains. LAMP amplification of genomic DNA templates was performed at 65 °C for only 30 min. The results were rapidly visualized in a microplate format within less than 5 min. The assay is based on salt-induced aggregation of AuNPs that is being prevented by the amplicons produced in case of positive LAMP reaction. As the solution color changes from red to violet upon nanoparticle aggregation can be observed with the naked eye, the developed LAMP-AuNPs assay can be easily operated to provide a simple initial screening for the rapid detection of Trichoderma in button mushroom cultivation substrate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to resolve the key genes for weed control by Trichoderma polysporum at the genomic level, we extracted the genomic DNA and sequenced the whole genome of T. polysporum strain HZ-31 on the Illumina Hiseq platform. The raw data was cleaned up using Trimmomatic and checked for quality using FastQC. The sequencing data was assembled using SPAdes, and GeneMark was used to perform gene prediction on the assembly results. The results showed that the genome size of T. polysporum HZ-31 was 39,325,746 bp, with 48% GC content, and the number of genes encoded was 11,998. A total of 148 tRNAs and 45 rRNAs were predicted. A total of 782 genes were annotated in the Carbohydrase Database, 757 genes were annotated to the Pathogen-Host Interaction Database, and 67 gene clusters were identified. In addition, 1023 genes were predicted to be signal peptide proteins. The annotation and functional analysis of the whole genome sequence of T. polymorpha HZ-31 provide a basis for the in-depth study of the molecular mechanism of its herbicidal action and more effective utilization for weed control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the field of agro-grassland, the synergism of phosphate (P) fertilization and Trichoderma inoculation in alfalfa production and the underlying mechanism of rare and abundant microbes that regulate rhizosphere soil processes in various environments are key but rarely studied topics. Here, we conducted field research through the inoculation/noninoculation of Trichoderma and five levels of phosphorus fertilizer to explore the biological relationships of rhizosphere soil properties, rare and abundant taxa, and alfalfa yields. Our results demonstrate that using Trichoderma inoculation and 15 g/m2 of phosphorus fertilizer exhibited optimal alfalfa yield compared with other treatments. alfalfa yields significantly (R2 = 0.33; p < 0.001) increased along with soil fertility. Both rare (RANOSIM = 0.900; p = 0.001) and abundant (RANOSIM = 0.769; p = 0.001) bacterial communities were significantly different under Trichoderma inoculation and P fertilization in a nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis. Furthermore, different ecological processes dominated the rare and abundant bacterial community assembly. PLS-PM analysis showed that Trichoderma inoculation positively regulated the abundant bacteria community and P fertilization regimes manipulated the rare bacteria community, synergistically contributing to alfalfa yields. Overall, this article believes that inoculation with Trichoderma and appropriate application of phosphorus fertilizer can significantly increase alfalfa yield and affect soil enzyme activity, and the rhizosphere soil abundant and rare bacterial community characteristics have different responses to the synergistic effect of Trichoderma and phosphorus fertilizer. Our research emphasizes the fundamental role of abundant and rare microbes in maintaining crop production using Trichoderma inoculation and P fertilization. Therefore, distinguishing rare and abundant species is beneficial to comprehensively understanding microbial-driven processes and providing theoretical support for maintaining ecosystem productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bacterial leaf streak disease, or black chaff, is one of the most important and damaging diseases of wheat worldwide. The impact of the disease on wheat and cereal production is increasing due to the lack of information and proper management methods to control it. Therefore, to develop an effective approach for managing this disease, the present study assessed the capability of fourteen strains of endophytic fungi to control this disease in laboratory and greenhouse conditions. The laboratory results revealed that volatile compounds produced by endophytic fungi significantly impacted the growth of pathogenic bacteria compared to the control. Furthermore, the greenhouse results indicated that all endophytic fungi significantly reduced the disease severity. A strain of Pleosporales sp. showed the highest efficiency in reducing disease severity, with a reduction of 59.03% compared to the infected control. Additionally, Fusarium moniliforme, Trichoderma virens, Trichoderma aerugineum, Clonostachys rosea, Arthrinium arundinis, and Epicoccum nigrum species showed favorable efficiency, reducing disease severity by 50.62%, 49.69%, 48.45%, 47.71%, 41.71%, and 41.67% respectively compared to the infected control. Furthermore, analysis of variance and mean comparison revealed that the effect of endophytic fungi on wheat growth parameters were strain depended. This report is the first to investigate the impact of various endophytic fungi on the control of bacterial leaf streak in wheat. In conclusion, endophytic fungi have great potential to be incorporated into the integrated management of Black Chaff disease and enhance the growth parameters of wheat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocompounds are widely used in many fields such as environmental, medicine, or agriculture. Nowadays, these nanocompounds are mainly synthesized by chemical methods, causing environmental pollution and potential health problems. Thus, microorganisms have been investigated as potential nanoparticle green biosynthesizers. The main research is focused on the synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) using algae, yeast, bacteria, and fungi. Among them, fungi have been the most used, due to their simple and effective mycosynthesis. Fungi as well as other organisms involved in green synthesis of NPs use their secondary metabolites (SMs) to mediate and catalyze the reactions to produce metal nanoparticles (MNPs) as well as being able to act as capping agents producing different physicochemical characteristics and biological activities in the MNPs. Among the various fungi used for mycosynthesis are Trichoderma species, which mediate the production of Ag, Cu, CuO, Zn, ZnO, and other MNPs. Here, we review the main SMs from Trichoderma that have been reported or suggested to contribute to synthesize or act as capping agents and their applications, as well as present the main challenges faced by this type of synthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neocosmospora solani causes Fusarium wilt disease and root rot, which are serious problems worldwide. To determine the growth inhibition of Neocosmospora solani by Trichoderma hamatum volatile organic compounds (VOCs), the major chemical components of Trichoderma hamatum VOCs and the differences in their contents at different times were analysed, and the activity of these components was evaluated. The antifungal activity of Trichoderma hamatum was measured by a screening test, as Trichoderma hamatum exhibited strong antagonism against Neocosmospora solani in vitro. The double plate technique was used to verify the activity of Trichoderma hamatum VOCs, and the inhibition rate was 63.77%. Neocosmospora solani mycelia were uneven and expanded, the contents of the cells leaked, and the mycelia shrank and presented a diaphragm in the hyphae upon Trichoderma hamatum VOCs treatment. Trichoderma hamatum VOCs and their contents at different times were analysed by using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one clearly presented in greater amounts than the other components on day 3, 4, 5, and 6. VOCs from Trichoderma hamatum exhibited evident effects on the percentage of healthy fruit after day 3. Moreover, Trichoderma hamatum can improve the biological control of diseases caused by soilborne pathogens, and can be applied in biocontrol fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drought stress (DS) is one of the main environmental stresses that determines crop productivity. It has been estimated that DS depresses over 40%–60% of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) production worldwide, respectively. Although different agronomic strategies are sometimes implemented, the current goal in sustainable agriculture could involve the inoculation with native microorganisms to mitigate DS effects. A potential fungal candidate is Trichoderma, which is recognized as a ubiquitous soil inhabitant with growth‐promoting and biocontrol potentiality. However, its potential for mitigating the stress for water deficit is less well‐documented. Our objective was to evaluate the effect of inoculation with native Trichoderma harzianum strains on soybean and common bean growth under contrasting conditions of water availability. Seeds were independently inoculated (or not) with IB‐J15 and IB‐363 strains, and plants were submitted to DS or were kept under optimal irrigation (well‐watered, WW). In both legumes, the most evident effect after being inoculated was the modification of plant root architecture, the increase in root area and the development of lateral roots in plants under WW and DS conditions. In soybean, both Trichoderma strains had a positive inoculation response, both fresh and dry root biomass increased under WW, and remarkably under DS conditions. The main effect was an increase of about 110% in root dry weight under WW and, about 330% in DS in plants inoculated with IB‐J15 strain, meanwhile, plants inoculated with IB‐363 increased root dry weight 60% in WW and 177% in DS conditions. Notably in soybean, the inoculation with both Trichoderma strains increased the root area more than 70% in both WW and DS conditions. Common beans inoculated with IB‐363 under WW conditions, reached a positive inoculation responsiveness of around 247% in shoot dry weight biomass, and under WW both strains increased the root area more than 50%. Further, IB‐363 increased leaf area by 25% in WW and 72% in DS. Additionally, the in vitro co‐culture between both Trichoderma strains and nodulating Rhizobium etli and Bradyrhizobium japonicum E109 showed compatibility between microorganisms, since no inhibition of their growth was observed. We emphasize that plants inoculated with Trichoderma showed better resistance to water deficit, as seen by redistribution of photosynthates, prioritizing mainly, the development of the root system. © 2024 Association of Applied Biologists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chemical pesticides help reduce crop loss during production and storage. However, the carbon footprints and ecological costs associated with this strategy are unsustainable. Here, we used three in vitro models to characterize how different Trichoderma species interact with two aflatoxin producers, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, to help develop a climate-resilient biological control strategy against aflatoxigenic Aspergillus species. The growth rate of Trichoderma species is a critical factor in suppressing aflatoxigenic strains via physical interactions. The dual plate assay suggests that Trichoderma mainly suppresses A. flavus via antibiosis, whereas the suppression of A. parasiticus occurs through mycoparasitism. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by Trichoderma inhibited the growth of A. parasiticus (34.6 ± 3.3%) and A. flavus (20.9 ± 1.6%). The VOCs released by T. asperellum BTU and T. harzianum OSK-34 were most effective in suppressing A. flavus growth. Metabolites secreted by T. asperellum OSK-38, T. asperellum BTU, T. virens OSK-13, and T. virens OSK-36 reduced the growth of both aflatoxigenic species. Overall, T. asperellum BTU was the most effective at suppressing the growth and aflatoxin B1 production of both species across all models. This work will guide efforts to screen for effective biological control agents to mitigate aflatoxin accumulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We explored the activation of defense genes and the changes in volatile profiles in olive (Olea europaea var. Picual) plants subjected to mechanical wounding and prior soil inoculation with the fungus Trichoderma afroharzianum T22. Our findings indicate a sustained effect of the inoculant in olive plants, which shifted the constitutive volatile emission more significantly towards an aldehyde-dominated blend than the mechanical damage alone. Furthermore, we found that wounding alone did not alter the expression of hydroperoxide lyase genes associated with aldehyde biosynthesis. However, this expression was significantly enhanced when combined with prior T22 inoculation. Mechanical wounding amplified the plant's immediate defensive response by enhancing the upregulation of the direct defense enzyme acetone cyanohydrin lyase. Trichoderma afroharzianum T22 also modulated direct defense, although to a lesser extent, and its effect persisted 9 months after inoculation. Metagenomic analyses revealed that aerial mechanical damage did influence specific root bacterial functions. Specifically, an upregulation of predicted bacterial functions related to various metabolic processes, including responses to biotic and abiotic stresses, was observed. On the contrary, T22's impact on bacterial functional traits was minor and/or transient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by microorganisms have the ability to inhibit the growth and development of plant pathogens, induce the activation of plant defenses, and promote plant growth. Among them, 6-pentylalpha-pyrone (6-PP), a ketone produced by Trichoderma fungi, has emerged as a focal point of interest. 6-PP has been isolated and characterized from thirteen Trichoderma species and is the main VOC produced, often accounting for >50% of the total VOCs emitted. This review examines abiotic and biotic interactions regulating the production of 6-PP by Trichoderma, and the known effects of 6-PP on plant pathogens through direct and indirect mechanisms including induced systemic resistance. While there are many reports of 6-PP activity against plant pathogens, the vast majority have been from laboratory studies involving only 6-PP and the pathogen, rather than glasshouse or field studies including a host plant in the system. Biopesticides based on 6-PP may well provide an eco-friendly, sustainable management tool for future agricultural production. However, before this can happen, challenges including demonstrating disease control efficacy in the field, developing efficient delivery systems, and determining cost-effective application rates must be overcome before 6-PP's potential for pathogen control can be turned into reality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Despite their known negative effects on ecosystems and human health, synthetic pesticides are still largely used to control crop insect pests. Currently, the biopesticide market for insect biocontrol mainly relies on the entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). New biocontrol tools for crop protection might derive from fungi, in particular from Trichoderma spp., which are known producers of chitinases and other bioactive compounds able to negatively affect insect survival. RESULTS: In this study, we first developed an environmentally sustainable production process for obtaining chitinases from Trichoderma asperellum ICC012. Then, we investigated the biological effects of this chitinase preparation – alone or in combination with a Bt‐based product – when orally administered to two lepidopteran species. Our results demonstrate that T. asperellum efficiently produces a multi‐enzymatic cocktail able to alter the chitin microfibril network of the insect peritrophic matrix, resulting in delayed development and larval death. The co‐administration of T. asperellum chitinases and sublethal concentrations of Bt toxins increased larval mortality. This synergistic effect was likely due to the higher amount of Bt toxins that passed the damaged peritrophic matrix and reached the target receptors on the midgut cells of chitinase‐treated insects. CONCLUSION: Our findings may contribute to the development of an integrated pest management technology based on fungal chitinases that increase the efficacy of Bt‐based products, mitigating the risk of Bt‐resistance development. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated the insecticide tolerance and dissipation potential of five Trichoderma isolates, namely T. asperellum (4 isolates) and T. harzianum (single isolate), to thiamethoxam and chlorantraniliprole in treated liquid medium and tomato fruit. The isolates were identified using ITS gene amplification and sequencing regions. In vitro tolerance was assessed using a poisoned medium technique, with mycelial placed onto Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA.) media supplemented with commercial insecticides at recommended doses. Dissipation potential was determined using the isolates after independently inoculating them into PDB liquid media with Actara and Voliam Flexi. The results showed that the inhibitory effect of thiamethoxam and chlorantraniliprole was almost zero, and the five isolates were competent to reach 9 cm growth like the control after 96 h of incubation at 25°C ± 2°C. Mycelial fresh weights of T. harzianum EGY-T4 and T. asperellum EGY-T5 were significantly equal to their respective control without insecticide. T. asperellum EGY-T1 had the highest dissipation rate of 36% and 30% for thiamethoxam in Actara and Voliam Flexi when applied at the higher dose of 100 mg L-1. The dissipation rate of thiamethoxam was recorded at 92.2% when applied in combination with T. asperellum EGY-T1, reducing the PHI from 7 to 4 days. Chlorantraniliprole was dissipated to the extent of 51.3 and 99.5% when applied in combination with T. asperellum EGY-T1 and T. harzianum EGY-T4, respectively, with residues reaching up to 0.12 and 0.21 mg kg-1 after one day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural fungicide pollution poses a significant environmental challenge and causes adverse effects on human health. Therefore, strategies to limit fungicide usage are of paramount importance. Trichoderma fungi, due to their antagonistic activity against various pathogenic fungi, have shown potential as a sustainable alternative to chemical fungicides. However, bio‐control agents like Trichoderma are vulnerable to physical stimuli and show diminished efficacy during prolonged storage. To address these challenges, a mild and scalable encapsulation method for Trichoderma spores is introduced, employing a layer‐by‐layer (LbL) approach using biobased lignin derivatives. It is demonstrated that the LbL encapsulation technique significantly improved spore stability relative to naked spores, even under adverse conditions including extreme temperatures and prolonged exposure to Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Notably, encapsulated Trichoderma spores showed enhanced efficacy in cultivating tomato plants compared to naked spores. Additionally, the findings revealed that the in planta efficacy of encapsulated spores is dependent on the specific Trichoderma strain used. This study suggests that Trichoderma spores encapsulated with lignin through the LbL approach, are a promising and sustainable alternative to chemical fungicides with potential for commercialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Corn and wheat are the main sources of energy in poultry diets worldwide, although due to its availability, wheat can be a good substitute for corn in the diet of broilers and laying hens. However, the inclusion level of wheat is limited often because wheatbased diet contained higher levels ofsoluble non-starch polysaccharidesThe arabinoxylans are the main NSP in wheat that increasing the viscosity of the digesta and reducing nutrient digestibility of direct-fed microbial (DFM) supplements include Bacillus velezensis, Trichoderma, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which are used as biological control agents due to their high ability to suppress disease agents and inhibit the proliferation of intestinal pathogens. Materials and Methods: The total number of 240 Hy-Line W-36 laying hens were randomly distributed between 40 cages, and the five experimental diets including (A) corn-soybean meal-based control diet, (B) wheat-based diet with no microbial additive, (C) wheat-based diet with 1x 109 cfu/kg Bacillus velezensis, (D) wheat-based diet with 1x 105 cfu/kg Trichoderma and (E) wheat-based diet with B. velezensis + Trichoderma were assigned to hens with 8 replicate cages per diet and 6 hens per each replicate. Results and Discussion: The results showed that the addition of B. velezensis + Trichoderma to the diet led to an improvement in the feed conversion ratio (FCR), and increased egg production (EP) and feed intake (FI; P<0.05)., Also, the pH of the contents of the jejunum, ileum and caecum was reduced in the treatments containing microorganisms(P<0.05). The DFMs enhanced the efficiency of nutrient adsorption and utilization, predominantly ascribable to the production of exogenous enzymes by the test probiotic. Prebiotics work as feed for the intestinal microflora and could stimulate the fermentation rate which increased the production of short chain fatty acids and reduced luminal pH. Hens fed microbe-added diets had higher plasma levels of calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P) and high-density lipoprotein (P<0.05). The addition of B. velezensis + Trichoderma to the diet, modulated the ileal and caecal microflora composition by decreasing the numbers of Escherichia coli and increasing the numbers of Lactobacilli. Dietary supplemented by B. velezensis and Trichoderma could increase plasma Ca and P compared to other treatments, which can be interpreted as probiotics increase the rate of fermentation and reduce intestinal pH, leads to better absorption of Ca and P from the intestine. Improved intestinal morphology characteristics were observed in hens fed the microbe-added diets (P<0.05). These beneficial effects were directly associated with decrease in total microbes, E. coli and Salmonella and enhance lactic acid bacteria of cecal. Consistently, addition of B. subtilis manipulated the gut ecosystem toward beneficial bacteria and enhanced the development and health of gastrointestinal tract. The positive effects of DFMs on eggshell quality can be attributed to the enhancement of gut health and intestinal tract microflora environment. Also, modifying the gut microflora composition by promoting the growth of beneficial microflora (such as lactic acid bacteria) and inhibiting the growth of Salmonella, E. coli, and Clostridium perfringens is beneficial effects of DFMs. The present study confirmed B. velezensis and Trichoderma enhanced the colonization of the beneficial bacteria and reduced the colonization of enteric bacteria. Maintaining a healthy intestine by probiotics and prebiotics will improve the ability of birds to overcome the disease and enhance their performance. Highest count of aerobic bacteria, lactobacilli, anaerobic bacteria, and E. coli were associated with Trichoderma reesei. Conclusion: Based on the results of the current study, it can be concluded that adding B. velezensis + Trichoderma to the wheat-based diets improve performance of laying hens, decrease plasma levels of cholesterol, triglyceride, and LDL and the intestinal pH and number of E. coli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fungus Trichoderma is widely regarded as the most common fungal biocontrol agent for plant health management. More than 25 Trichoderma species have been extensively studied and have demonstrated significant potential in inhibiting not only phytopathogen growth but also insect pest infestations. In addition to their use as biopesticides, there is increasing evidence that several Trichoderma species can function as fungal endophytes by colonizing the tissues of specific plants. This colonization enhances a plant's growth and improves its tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses. In recent decades, there has been a proliferation of literature on the role of Trichoderma endophytes in crop protection. Although the mechanisms underlying plant–fungal endophyte interactions are not yet fully understood, several studies have suggested their potential application in agriculture, particularly in the mitigation of plant pests and diseases. This review focuses on the diversity of Trichoderma endophytic strains and their potential use in controlling specific diseases and pests of crop plants. Trichoderma endophytes are considered a potential solution to reduce production costs and environmental impact by decreasing reliance on agrochemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chickpeas contribute to half of the pulses produced in India and are an excellent source of protein, fibers, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. However, the combination of the wilt and root rot diseases drastically lowers its yield. The use of antagonist microbes that restrict the growth of other phytopathogens is an ecofriendly approach to combat the serious threats raised by the plant pathogens. Trichoderma spp. are well known as biocontrol agents, especially against soil- and seed-borne phytopathogens. In this study, 21 Trichoderma isolates that were collected from different rhizospheric soils were evaluated against two notorious soil-borne pathogens, such as Fusarium oxysproum f.sp. ciceri and Sclerotium rolfsii. The maximum percentage of inhibition against the tested pathogens was observed in Trichoderma isolate PBT13 (72.97%, 61.1%) followed by PBT3 (72.23%, 59.3%). The mycelial extension rate method, dual culture (antagonism), production of cell-wall degrading enzymes (CWDs), and antifungal metabolites (by GC-MS) were used as selection criteria for potent Trichoderma isolates. Among the 21 isolates, PBT3, PBT4, PBT9, and PBT13 exhibited high antagonistic activity, production of antifungal metabolites, and chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activity. These four species were subjected to molecular characterization using an internal transcribed spacer (ITS 1 and ITS4). The results of molecular characterization identified the four species as T. virnes, T. asperellum, T. lixii, and T. harzianum. Moreover, significant chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase activities of all Trichoderma isolates were recorded in the growth medium. Trichoderma harzianum (isolate PBT13) was found to exhibit the highest chitinase activity in terms of zone formation (4.40 ± 0.17 cm), whereas Trichoderma virens (isolate PBT3) exhibited the highest β-1,3-glucanase activity1.511 μmole/min. A GC-MS analysis of ethyl extracts from two isolates of Trichoderma (PBT9, PBT13) revealed the presence of 28 VOCs. Overall, this study suggests that these four Trichoderma strains are promising biological control agents (BCAs) and could be developed as bio-pesticides after stringent field trials for the management of soil-borne diseases of chickpeas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Although potato virus Y (PVY) is the most serious virus-infecting potato plants worldwide, the losses concurred by it remain unmanageable due to the lack of efficient anti-PVY agents. Hence, the objective of this study was to assess the antiviral properties of secondary metabolite compounds obtained from culture filtrates of four Trichoderma spp. isolates. The assessment was conducted using computational methods, including molecular docking, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) analysis, as well as molecular dynamics simulations. The aim was to develop novel and effective agents for combating PVY. Results The GC–MS analysis of the studied Trichoderma spp. secondary metabolites revealed 24 compounds with relative amounts exceeding 10%. Molecular docking was then performed using MOE software to evaluate the activity of these compounds against the PVY protein coat (PDB-ID: 6HXX). Ningnanmycin and ribavirin, known plant virus inhibitors, were employed as reference ligands for comparison. Among the compounds tested, C9, C10, C13, and C19 exhibited superior docking scores, root mean square deviation (RMSD) values, and binding modes compared to the reference ligands. In addition, these compounds successfully passed the ADMET analysis. Further investigation focused on compounds C13 and C19, which underwent in-depth analysis through MDs for 100 ns. The MDs trajectories demonstrated that both complexes exhibited favorable stability, compactness, and binding modes throughout the simulation period. However, the C19/PVY-CP complex outperformed the C13 complex in all calculated parameters such as RMSD, root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), radius of gyration (RoG), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Interestingly, these findings aligned with the results obtained from the docking analysis, indicating that C9 and C10 possess high potential against PVY, as they exhibited binding modes like that of C19. Conclusion These promising outcomes provide a solid foundation for considering the potential use of compounds C9, C10, C13, and C19 as antiviral agents. Further experimental validation and in-depth studies are warranted to assess the efficacy and safety of these compounds and their potential as antiviral therapeutics. To our knowledge, this is the first report to study the biological activities of the Trichoderma-based bioactive compounds against PVY using computational techniques. Graphical abstract

Important pathogenic fungi such as Fusarium species are mostly associated with the wilting of tomato plant leaves and constitute a serious limiting factor for tomato production. Therefore, this study aimed to screen tomato varieties commonly cultivated in Nigeria to determine their host resistance status to Fusarium oxysporum. The treatments included Trichoderma asperellum, T. harzianum, and Mancozeb fungicide. Data recorded included the incidence and severity of the pathogen, plant height, leaf number, and fruit yield of the tomato plants. Tomato plants grown with Trichoderma sp. exhibited better performance in terms of average fruit yield count of 6.5 for T. asperellum and 6.7 for T. harzianum compared to the average yield of 1.7 fruit count for Mancozeb fungicide. The lowest disease incidence was recorded in the variety 3 (NGB00737) with a 5.81% incidence in the Mancozeb-treated plants. Conversely, T. asperellum-treated plants in variety 3 (NGB00737) had the highest disease incidence of 46.49%. For variety 4 (NGB00695), plants treated with Mancozeb had the least disease with a severity rating of 1. Similarly, variety 5 (NGB00725) plants treated with T. asperellum showed the least disease severity rating of 1. All other treated plants showed higher severity values of 4. The Trichoderma species also improved the fruit yield and some agronomic parameters of the tomato plants compared to the chemical control. Agro-business enthusiasts, commercial growers and local farmers are therefore encouraged to further exploit the potential of Trichoderma species as means of control for fungus-based diseases in tomato plants such as those caused by Fusarium.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Trichoderma species (Trichoderma sp.) is commonly found in nature, particularly in soil and roots, often thriving in plants rich in cellulose such as oil palm. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize Trichoderma sp. in each substrate as well as to assess cellulolytic and ligninolytic potential in vitro using a specific medium. Characterization and utilization of the plant were examined to efficiently manage empty fruit bunch (EFB) waste in Indonesian oil palm plantations. By exploring the biological, ecological, and biochemical attributes of Trichoderma sp., this study examined the mechanisms associated with efficacy in bioconversion processes and waste remediation. METHODS: A survey method was used to determine sampling locations, and purposive sampling was utilized in the field. Furthermore, several stages were undertaken including isolation, identification, as well as testing of morphology and potential in vitro. FINDINGS: The results showed that the growth characteristics of Trichoderma sp. in filling a petri dish spanned approximately five days, forming colonies with a dark green hue. Microscopically, the isolates consisted of conidiophores, phialides, and conidia. Meanwhile, in vitro potential was assessed through cellulolytic and lignocellulolytic assays, with each isolate demonstrating varying capabilities in breaking down cellulose and lignocellulose. The highest cellulase activity (3.55 units per gram) was observed in enzyme starter granules treated with air drying. The highest viability per gram was found in spore inoculum (17.0 x 107) with air drying treatment. The greatest reduction in weight of oil palm EFB waste (65.3 percent) was achieved through the application of Trichoderma sp. enzyme starter granules with air drying treatment. Furthermore, eight isolates demonstrated cellulolytic and ligninolytic potential. Isolates sourced from soil had rapid growth on starter and baglog mediums, indicating potential for subsequent field applications as a biodegradation agent for organic waste. CONCLUSION: Based on the macroscopic (shape and color of mycelium) and microscopic characteristics (mycelium form), a total of eight Trichoderma sp. isolates were obtained. During the potential test, it was observed each isolate had different cellulolytic and ligninolytic activities. This study provided valuable insights into the diversity and enzymatic potential of Trichoderma sp. fungi, underscoring the importance of selecting suitable strains and optimizing cultivation conditions for various biotechnological applications. By exploring cellulolytic and ligninolytic capabilities, the results contributed to the development of more efficient and sustainable strategies for organic waste management and bioconversion. In general, this study represented a significant milestone in the quest for sustainable waste management solutions in agriculture, offering a promising pathway towards mitigating environmental impact and promoting the long-term sustainability of oil palm cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Fusarium wilt, caused by (Fusarium udum Butler), is a significant threat to pigeonpea crops worldwide, leading to substantial yield losses. Traditional approaches like fungicides and resistant cultivars are not practical due to the persistent and evolving nature of the pathogen. Therefore, native biocontrol agents are considered to be more sustainable solution, as they adapt well to local soil and climatic conditions. In this study, five isolates of F. udum infecting pigeonpea were isolated from various cultivars and characterized morphologically and molecularly. The isolate from the ICP 8858 cultivar displayed the highest virulence of 90%. Besides, 100 endophytic bacteria, 100 rhizosphere bacteria and three Trichoderma spp. were isolated and tested against F. udum isolated from ICP 8858 under in vitro conditions. Out of the 200 bacteria tested, nine showed highest inhibition, including Rb-4 (Bacillus sp.), Rb-11 (B. subtilis), Rb-14 (B. megaterium), Rb-18 (B. subtilis), Rb-19 (B. velezensis), Eb-8 (Bacillus sp.), Eb-11 (B. subtilis), Eb-13 (P. aeruginosa), and Eb-21 (P. aeruginosa). Similarly, Trichoderma spp. were identified as T. harzianum, T. asperellum and Trichoderma sp. Notably, Rb-18 (B. subtilis) and Eb-21 (P. aeruginosa) exhibited promising characteristics such as the production of hydrogen cyanide (HCN), cellulase, siderophores, ammonia and nutrient solubilization. Furthermore, treating pigeonpea seedlings with these beneficial microorganisms led to increased levels of key enzymes (POD, PPO, and PAL) associated with resistance to Fusarium wilt, compared to untreated controls. In field trials conducted for four seasons, the application of these potential biocontrol agents as seed treatments on the susceptible ICP2376 cultivar led to the lowest disease incidence. Specifically, treatments T2 (33.33) (P. aeruginosa) and T3 (35.41) (T. harzianium) exhibited the lowest disease incidence, followed by T6 (36.5) (Carbendizim), T1 (36.66) (B. subtilis), T4 (52.91) (T. asperellum) and T5 (53.33) (Trichoderma sp.). Results of this study revealed that, P. aeruginosa (Eb-21), B. subtilis (Rb-18) and T. harzianum can be used for plant growth promotion and management of Fusarium wilt of pigeonpea.

Abstract Background Azo dyes represent a common textile dye preferred for its high stability on fabrics in various harsh conditions. Although these dyes pose high-risk levels for all biological forms, fungal laccase is known as a green catalyst for its ability to oxidize numerous dyes. Methods Trichoderma isolates were identified and tested for laccase production. Laccase production was optimized using Plackett–Burman Design. Laccase molecular weight and the kinetic properties of the enzyme, including Km and Vmax, pH, temperature, and ionic strength, were detected. Azo dye removal efficiency by laccase enzyme was detected for Congo red, methylene blue, and methyl orange. Results Eight out of nine Trichoderma isolates were laccase producers. Laccase production efficiency was optimized by the superior strain T. harzianum PP389612, increasing production from 1.6 to 2.89 U/ml. In SDS-PAGE, purified laccases appear as a single protein band with a molecular weight of 41.00 kDa. Km and Vmax values were 146.12 μmol guaiacol and 3.82 μmol guaiacol/min. Its activity was stable in the pH range of 5–7, with an optimum temperature range of 40 to 50 °C, optimum ionic strength of 50 mM NaCl, and thermostability properties up to 90 °C. The decolorization efficiency of laccase was increased by increasing the time and reached its maximum after 72 h. The highest efficiency was achieved in Congo red decolorization, which reached 99% after 72 h, followed by methylene blue at 72%, while methyl orange decolorization efficiency was 68.5%. Conclusion Trichoderma laccase can be used as an effective natural bio-agent for dye removal because it is stable and removes colors very well.

Background. Throughout the world, the losses of agricultural products are associated with plant diseases, most often caused by microscopic fungi. Among the most effective methods to control these fungi is the use of various chemicals fungicides. However, the overutilization of such fungicides can induce negative implications. To address this challenge, alternatives methods of control using antagonist microbes are being developed. Of particular interest are fungi of the Trichoderma genus, which can be employed as biopreparations to protect crops against a number of diseases. Purpose. The study of the antagonistic interactions of two micromycetes of the Trichoderma genus, isolated from wood cuts in Eastern Siberia, with phytopathogenic fungi. Materials and methods. The taxonomic affiliation of the isolated fungi was determined by macro- and micromorphological features, using a Primo Star light microscope (Zeiss, Germany). Molecular genetic analysis was carried out on the basis of the All-Russian Collection of Industrial Microorganisms (Moscow) using the sequence of ribosomal genes (26-sRNA). The antagonistic activity of Trichoderma against phytopathogens was tested in vitro by the method of counter cultures in 5 replicates. Results. According to morphological and molecular genetic characteristics, the isolated strains were identified to the species Trichoderma atroviride and Trichoderma harzianum. It was shown that the isolated Trichoderma strains efficiently inhibit the development of the pathogenic fungi under study (by 50-80%). Conclusion. The results obtained suggest that Trichoderma atroviride and Trichoderma harzianum can be further employed in the biocontrol of plant diseases.

Abstract The filamentous ascomycete Trichoderma reesei, known for its prolific cellulolytic enzyme production, recently also gained attention for its secondary metabolite synthesis. Both processes are intricately influenced by environmental factors like carbon source availability and light exposure. Here, we explore the role of the transcription factor STE12 in regulating metabolic pathways in T. reesei in terms of gene regulation, carbon source utilization and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. We show that STE12 is involved in regulating cellulase gene expression and growth on carbon sources associated with iron homeostasis. STE12 impacts gene regulation in a light dependent manner on cellulose with modulation of several CAZyme encoding genes as well as genes involved in secondary metabolism. STE12 selectively influences the biosynthesis of the sorbicillinoid trichodimerol, while not affecting the biosynthesis of bisorbibutenolide, which was recently shown to be regulated by the MAPkinase pathway upstream of STE12 in the signaling cascade. We further report on the biosynthesis of dehydroacetic acid (DHAA) in T. reesei, a compound known for its antimicrobial properties, which is subject to regulation by STE12. We conclude, that STE12 exerts functions beyond development and hence contributes to balance the energy distribution between substrate consumption, reproduction and defense.

Abstract Background The phylogenetic relationships and phylogeny of twenty-six Trichoderma species collected from various Egyptian locations were investigated. The genetic diversity among the examined isolates was tested using the rep-PCR marker. Trichoderma species were screened for their cellulase activities. Results Three isolates demonstrated highly significant FPase activities, namely MNF-MAS-Tricho 1, MNF-MAS-Tricho 2, and MNF-MAS-Tricho 3 (0.50, 0.39, and 0.49 IU ml−1, respectively). MNF-MAS-Tricho1 showed the highest significant CMCase activity (0.80 IU ml−1). Concerning β-glucosidase, MNF-MAS-Tricho 1 was the highest (0.78 IU ml−1), while MNF-MSH-Trich 11 and MNF-MAS-Tricho 15 were the lowest (0.36 IU mL−1). The percentage of polymorphism ranged from 46.15 to 83.33%. (GTG)5 marker produced the greatest number of polymorphic loci (13 loci out of 18 loci) with about 83.33% polymorphism, followed by rep-10 with 69.2% polymorphism. Furthermore, the polymorphism information content (PIC) estimates ranged between 0.285 for Rep-10 and 0.340 for (GTG) 5 with an average of 0.306. The tested primers exhibited high discriminating and resolving powers. Conclusion The findings of this investigation were used to classify Trichoderma species, evaluate their genetic variability using ITS sequencing, rep-PCR, and measure their cellulase activities. These markers can facilitate more rapid and less complicated studies of Trichoderma population dynamics and evaluate their establishment after release into agricultural environments. The results will help to evaluate the genetic diversity of Trichoderma in future research.

Agarwood is a resinous heartwood of Aquilaria sinensis that is formed in response to mechanical wounding. In the present study pre-treatment of Aquilaria sinensis was carried out, and then the dominant fungi were isolated and purified from the surface and electroshock holes of trees. The isolated Trichoderma sp. and Neurospora sp. were then screened for resistance against benzyl acetone and then inoculated into healthy Aquilaria sinensis trees. After six months, the agarwood was collected for analysis. The chemical composition of incense was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy, and 82 chemical constituents were identified. Agarwood products formed by using Trichoderma sp. and Neurospora sp. consisted of 50.22% and 48.71% ether extracts, respectively, which surpassed the 10% threshold specified by the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Similarly, relative aromatic contents in the two agarwood products were 30.1% and 32.86%, while proportions of sesquiterpene constituents were 10.21% and 11.19%, respectively. These two agarwood-specific chemical constituents accounted for a large proportion of the total chemical composition, which showed that the generated agarwood was of good quality. The results of the study revealed that both Trichoderma sp. and Neurospora sp. were able to effectively induce agarwood production in Aquilaria sinensis trees in 6 months. This study expands the library of fungi that promote the production of agarwood from Aquilaria sinensis trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]