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Changes in neural activity occur in the motor cortex before movement, but the nature and purpose of this preparatory activity is unclear. To investigate this in the human (male and female) brain noninvasively, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to probe the excitability of distinct sets of excitatory inputs to corticospinal neurons during the warning period of various reaction time tasks. Using two separate methods (H-reflex conditioning and directional effects of TMS), we show that a specific set of excitatory inputs to corticospinal neurons are suppressed during motor preparation, while another set of inputs remain unaffected. To probe the behavioral relevance of this suppression, we examined whether the strength of the selective preparatory inhibition in each trial was related to reaction time. Surprisingly, the greater the amount of selective preparatory inhibition, the faster the reaction time was. This suggests that the inhibition of inputs to corticospinal neurons is not involved in preventing the release of movement but may in fact facilitate rapid reactions. Thus, selective suppression of a specific set of motor cortical neurons may be a key aspect of successful movement preparation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Movement preparation evokes substantial activity in the motor cortex despite no apparent movement. One explanation for the lack of movement is that motor cortical output in this period is gated by an inhibitory mechanism. This notion was supported by previous noninvasive TMS studies of human motor cortex indicating a reduction of corticospinal excitability. On the contrary, our data support the idea that there is a coordinated balance of activity upstream of the corticospinal output neurons. This includes a suppression of specific local circuits that supports, rather than inhibits, the rapid generation of prepared movements. Thus, the selective suppression of local circuits appears to be an essential part of successful movement preparation instead of an external control mechanism.

Background Polarising currents can modulate membrane potentials in animals, affecting the after-effect of theta burst stimulation (TBS) on synaptic strength. Objective We examined whether a similar phenomenon could also be observed in human motor cortex (M1) using transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) during monophasic intermittent TBS (iTBS). Methods TDCS was applied during posterior-anterior iTBS using three different conditions: posterior-anterior TDCS (anode 3.5 cm posterior to M1, cathode 3.5 cm anterior to M1), anterior-posterior TDCS (cathode 3.5 cm posterior to M1, anode 3.5 cm anterior to M1), and sham TDCS. Results When the direction of TDCS (posterior-anterior) matched the direction of the electrical field induced by iTBS, we found a 19% non-significant increase in excitability changes in comparison with iTBS combined with sham TDCS. When the TDCS was reversed (anterior-posterior), the excitatory effect of iTBS was abolished. Conclusion Our findings suggest that excitatory after-effects of iTBS can be modulated by directionally-specific TDCS., Highlights • M1 excitability can be modulated by concurrent TDCS and iTBS. • Posterior-anterior TDCS during iTBS induces a qualitative increase in M1 iTBS after-effects. • Anterior-posterior TDCS during iTBS abolishes the after-effects of iTBS over M1.

L’association démontrée récemment entre les commotions cérébrales dans le sport et le développement possible de maladies neurodégénératives a suggéré la possibilité que des altérations persistantes soient présentes dans le cerveau de l’athlète commotionné. En fait, des altérations neurophysiologiques ont récemment été révélées au sein du cortex moteur primaire (M1) d’athlètes ayant un historique de commotions via la stimulation magnétique transcrânienne (SMT). Plus précisément, la période silencieuse corticale (PSC), une mesure d’inhibition liée aux récepteurs GABAB, était anormalement élevée, et cette hyper-inhibition était présente jusqu’à 30 ans post-commotion. La PSC, et possiblement le GABA, pourraient donc s’avérer des marqueurs objectifs des effets persistants de la commotion cérébrale. Toutefois, aucune étude à ce jour n’a directement évalué les niveaux de GABA chez l’athlète commotionné. Ainsi, les études cliniques et méthodologiques composant le présent ouvrage comportent deux objectifs principaux: (1) déterminer si l’inhibition excessive (GABA et PSC) est un marqueur des effets persistants de la commotion cérébrale; (2) déterminer s’il est possible de moduler l’inhibition intracorticale de façon non-invasive dans l’optique de développer de futurs avenues de traitements. L’article 1 révèle une préservation des systèmes sensorimoteurs, somatosensoriels et de l’inhibition liée au GABAA chez un groupe d’athlètes universitaires asymptomatiques ayant subi de multiples commotions cérébrales en comparaison avec des athlètes sans historique connu de commotion cérébrale. Cependant, une atteinte spécifique des mesures liées au système inhibiteur associé aux récepteurs GABAB est révélée chez les athlètes commotionnés en moyenne 24 mois post-commotion. Dans l’article 2, aucune atteinte des mesures SMT liées au système inhibiteur n’est révélée en moyenne 41 mois après la dernière commotion cérébrale chez un groupe d’athlètes asymptomatiques ayant subi 1 à 5 commotions cérébrales. Bien qu’aucune différence entre les groupes n’est obtenue quant aux concentrations de GABA et de glutamate dans M1 via la spectroscopie par résonance magnétique (SRM), des corrélations différentielles suggèrent la présence d’un déséquilibre métabolique entre le GABA et le glutamate chez les athlètes commotionnés. L’article 3 a démontré, chez des individus en bonne santé, un lien entre la PSC et la transmission glutamatergique, ainsi que le GABA et le glutamate. Ces résultats suggèrent que la PSC ne reflète pas directement les concentrations du GABA mesurées par la SRM, mais qu’un lien étroit entre la GABA et le glutamate est présent. L’article 4 a démontré la possibilité de moduler la PSC avec la stimulation électrique transcrânienne à courant direct (SÉTcd) anodale chez des individus en santé, suggérant l’existence d’un potentiel thérapeutique lié à l’utilisation de cette technique. L’article 5 a illustré un protocole d’évaluation des effets métaboliques de la SÉTcd bilatérale. Dans l’article 6, aucune modulation des systèmes GABAergiques révélées par la SMT et la SRM n’est obtenue suite à l’utilisation de ce protocole auprès d’individus en santé. Cet article révèle également que la SÉTcd anodale n’engendre pas de modulation significative du GABA et du glutamate. En somme, les études incluent dans le présent ouvrage ont permis d’approfondir les connaissances sur les effets neurophysiologiques et métaboliques des commotions cérébrales, mais également sur le mécanisme d’action des diverses méthodologies utilisées., The recent demonstration of a link between sport concussions and the possible development of neurodegenerative disorders suggests that these injuries could induce long-term alterations in the brain of athletes. In fact, neurophysiological abnormalities have recently been shown via transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in primary motor cortex (M1) of asymptomatic concussed athletes. Specifically, the cortical silent period (CSP), a measure of GABAB-related inhibition, was prolonged and this hyper-inhibition was observed up to 30 years post-concussion. Therefore, the CSP, and possibility abnormal GABA transmission, may become objective markers of lingering effects of sport concussions. However, no study to date has directly assessed GABA levels in concussed athletes. Therefore, the clinical and methodological studies included in the present thesis comprise two main objectives: (1) to determine whether excessive inhibition (GABA and CSP) is a marker of the persistent effects of concussion; (2) to assess the possibility of non-invasively modulating intracortical inhibition in order to develop future treatments aiming to normalize aberrant inhibition. Study 1 reveals normal sensorimotor interactions, somatosensory processing and GABAA-related intracortical inhibition in M1 of asymptomatic athletes who sustained multiple concussions in comparison with athletes who never sustained a concussion. However, a specific enhancement of GABAB-related intracortical inhibition is observed in athletes on average 24 months after the last concussion. In study 2, no alteration of GABAB-related intracortical inhibition is revealed in a group of athletes who sustained 1 to 5 sport concussions on average 41 months after the last concussion, in comparison with control athletes. In addition, while no alterations were present for GABA and glutamate levels in M1 using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), both groups displayed differential correlations between GABA and glutamate, which suggests the presence of a slight metabolic imbalance between the two metabolites in the concussed brain. Study 3 highlighted, in healthy individuals, a relationship between the CSP and MRS-derived glutamatergic transmission, as well as GABA and glutamate levels. These results reveal a link between excitatory and inhibitory transmission in M1 and suggest that the CSP does not directly reflect GABA concentrations measured with MRS. Results from study 4 showed that anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can reduce the length of the CSP in healthy individuals, suggesting the existence of a therapeutic potential associated with the use of this technique. Study 5 thoroughly describes a protocol that aims at assessing the effects of bilateral tDCS on M1 metabolism using MRS. Using this protocol, study 6 reveals, in healthy individuals, no significant modulation of GABAergic inhibition as assessed with MRS. The study also shows, in an additional experiment, that anodal tDCS does not modulate MRS-derived GABA and glutamate levels. In summary, the six studies included in the present thesis have helped increase our understanding of the neurophysiological and metabolic long-term effects of sport concussions. In addition, these experiments have shed light into the mechanism of action of several methods, including TMS, tDCS and MRS.

To perform strictly unilateral movements, the brain relies on a large cortical and subcortical network. This network enables healthy adults to perform complex unimanual motor tasks without the activation of contralateral muscles. However, mirror movements (involuntary movements in ipsilateral muscles that can accompany intended movement) can be seen in healthy individuals if a task is complex or fatiguing, in childhood, and with increasing age. Lateralization of movement depends on complex interhemispheric communication between cortical (i.e., dorsal premotor cortex, supplementary motor area) and subcortical (i.e., basal ganglia) areas, probably coursing through the corpus callosum (CC). Here, we will focus on transcallosal interhemispheric inhibition (IHI), which facilitates complex unilateral movements and appears to play an important role in handedness, pathological conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, and stroke recovery.