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Urbanization dramatically alters the ecological landscape, posing strong and novel challenge to wild animals. Although the behavioural adaptations of wildlife to urbanization have been well documented, the activity time budget and feeding habits of tree squirrels in Afro-tropical cities have received considerably limited investigations. Here, we studied the activity budget, feeding habits and habitat use by the Gambian sun squirrel (Heliosciurus gambianus) on the University of Ghana, Legon main campus in Accra, Ghana. Data was collected from December 2021 to July 2022 using focal sampling. We found that the activity pattern of H. gambianus was bimodal, with peaks in the mornings and evenings. Their activity budget composed largely of feeding (43.8%), foraging (23.1%) and observing (12.5%). Although the squirrels' activities were higher in the dry season, there was no significant difference between their activity budget in the dry and wet seasons. The Gambian sun squirrels consumed flowers, fruits/seeds and young leaves from 11 (six local and five exotic) tree species, but their diet composition varied seasonally. The squirrels used areas with high density or linear strip of tall trees (≥ 3.5 m) with overlapping canopies that enabled arboreal movement as they rarely used the ground. They nested in tree hollows and attic of buildings. Our study provides the first systematic data on the activity budget, feeding habits and habitat use of H. gambianus in a West African city and University campus. Our data can inform urban land-use planning and effective conservation of urban habitats and tree squirrels in Afro-tropical cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an ever more urbanized world, animals have to cope with different challenging conditions that may shape the individual's phenotype in the urban environment. Since body mass and body size are found to be related to fitness in many species, investigating the variation in these two morphological traits along the rural-urban gradient, is a first step to understand how animals adapt to urbanization. Here we studied two tree squirrels, the native Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) and the invasive Eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), using a pseudo-experimental design with replicated study sites (2 rural, 2 suburban and 2 urban sites for each species). We investigated whether squirrels differed in body size and body mass along the urbanization gradient and whether the invasive alien squirrels had more marked differences along the gradient, showing a higher adaptation capacity. We did not find variation in body size in red squirrels along the gradient, but invasive grey squirrels were slightly larger in urban than in other area-types. In both species, animals of either sex were heavier in the urban than in the rural sites, while the difference between urban and suburban areas depends on species and sex. Hence, morphologically both native and invasive species showed similar changes, with higher body mass in urban habitat, which could result in higher fitness, since body mass in squirrels species is positively related to reproductive success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scatter-hoarding animals face the task of maximizing retrieval of their scattered food caches while minimizing loss to pilferers. This demand should select for mnemonics, such as chunking, i.e. a hierarchical cognitive representation that is known to improve recall. Spatial chunking, where caches with the same type of content are related to each other in physical location and memory, would be one such mechanism. Here we tested the hypothesis that scatter-hoarding eastern fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) are organizing their caches in spatial patterns consistent with a chunking strategy. We presented 45 individual wild fox squirrels with a series of 16 nuts of four different species, either in runs of four of the same species or 16 nuts offered in a pseudorandom order. Squirrels either collected each nut from a different location or collected all nuts from a single location; we then mapped their subsequent cache distributions using GPS. The chunking hypothesis predicted that squirrels would spatially organize caches by nut species, regardless of presentation order. Our results instead demonstrated that squirrels spatially chunked their caches by nut species but only when caching food that was foraged from a single location. This first demonstration of spatial chunking in a scatter hoarder underscores the cognitive demand of scatter hoarding.

The eastern fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, exhibits marked geographic variation in size and coat color, is a model organism for studies of behavior and ecology, and a potential model for investigating physiological solutions to human porphyrias. We assembled a genome using Illumina HiSeq, PacBio SMRT, and Oxford Nanopore MinION sequencing platforms. Together, the sequencing data resulted in a draft genome of 2.99Gb, containing 32,830 scaffolds with an average size of 90.9 Kb and N50 of 183.8 Kb. Genome completeness was estimated to be 93.78%. A total of 24,443 protein-encoding genes were predicted from the assembly and 23,079 (94.42%) were annotated. Repeat elements comprised an estimated 38.49% of the genome, with the majority being LINEs (13.92%), SINEs (6.04%), and LTR elements. The topology of the species tree reconstructed using maximum-likelihood phylogenetic analysis was congruent with those of previous studies. This genome assembly can prove useful for comparative studies of genome structure and function in this rapidly diversifying lineage of mammals, for studies of population genomics and adaptation, and for biomedical research. Predicted amino acid sequence alignments for genes affecting heme biosynthesis, color vision, and hibernation showed point mutations and indels that may affect protein function and ecological adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is widely assumed that spillover of alien parasites to native host species severely impacts naïve populations, ultimately conferring a competitive advantage to invading hosts that introduced them. Despite such host-switching events occurring in biological invasions, studies demonstrating the impact of alien macroparasites on native animal hosts are surprisingly few. In Europe, native red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) are replaced by introduced North American grey squirrels (S. carolinensis) mainly through resource competition, and, only in the United Kingdom and Ireland, by competition mediated by a viral disease. In Italy such disease is absent, but spillover of an introduced North American nematode (Strongyloides robustus) from grey to red squirrels is known to occur. Here, we used long-term (9 years) capture-mark-recapture and parasitological data of red squirrels in areas co-inhabited by grey squirrels in Northern Italy to investigate the impact of this alien helminth on naïve native squirrels' body mass, local survival, and reproduction of females. We found no negative effect of the alien parasite on body mass or reproductive success, but intensity of infection by S. robustus reduced survival of both male and female squirrels. Significantly, survival of squirrels co-infected by their native nematode, Trypanoxyuris sciuri, was less affected by S. robustus, suggesting a protective effect of the native helminth against the new infection. Hence, we demonstrate that alien S. robustus spillover adds to the detrimental effects of resource competition and stress induced by grey squirrels, further reducing the fitness of the native species in the presence of the invasive competitor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eastern fox squirrels have been introduced to many regions within the western United States including areas within California, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington. In California, fox squirrels have been introduced to San Francisco, Fresno, Los Angeles, San Diego, Berkeley, Mount Diablo in Clayton, Bakersfield, and Santa Barbara. The geographic range of the eastern fox squirrel has expanded greatly both through natural dispersal and additional intentional introductions by humans. The fox squirrel has replaced the native western gray squirrel in certain habitats while the two species coexist in other habitats. Western gray squirrels exist by themselves in a third type of habitat even though eastern fox squirrels have occupied adjacent habitat for about 30 years. Habitat Suitability Models (HSMs) have been used to predict the presence and/or abundance of a particular species within a habitat. Analysis of 9 habitat variables using Discriminant Analysis produced a HSM where replacement, coexistence, and exclusion habitats can be identified using only 3 of the 9 habitat variables: average height of ground cover, percent canopy cover, and percent of total trees that are deciduous. A field study underway for over two years at Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden in Claremont, CA is testing the validity of the HSM with the study site predicted to be a long-term coexistence habitat. The ratio of western gray squirrels to eastern fox squirrels has gone from 3:1 shortly after the fox squirrel entered the habitat to 1:1, but after 2.5 years of coexistence both species are commonly observed in the study site. The HSM is also being tested through the analysis of additional habitats. Although coexistence of the two species is possible for many decades, the number of western gray squirrels in coexistence habitats is often small, coexistence habitats are geographically isolated from each other, and the probability of extinction of western gray squirrels from these habitats could be high. We are also looking for new habitats which could support western gray squirrels if individuals were moved to these habitats.

The eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is a North American tree squirrel species which has been introduced to several countries outside its native range. We made use of squirrels culled in Italy within control activities to establish hematological reference intervals for this invasive species, with the aim to broaden the current knowledge about its physiology. Blood from 104 individuals was analysed through a laser analyser. Manual leukocyte differential counts on blood films from a subset of 77 animals were used for validation of the automated counts, resulting in a fairly good agreement between the two methods for all variables excluding monocytes. Reference intervals and the 90% confidence interval of their limits were estimated for 19 hematological variables, partitioning by sex when statistically significant differences were detected. For most variables, our results were comparable with the few data available on the grey squirrel and on related species. An exception was represented by the hematocrit and mean corpuscular volume which were higher than values reported by other authors, and by the mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, which was instead lower. This study gathered valuable reference information for studies aimed at disclosing the mechanisms underlying grey squirrels’ invasiveness and for future research on tree squirrels’ physiology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptations to different environments between closely related species can be important drivers of reproductive isolation during speciation due to either habitat isolation between species or reduced fitness in hybrids that possess suboptimal adaptations. Hybrid zones are useful natural arenas to explore how ecologically divergent species compete for habitat in sympatry and how possible differences in their habitat use may contribute to the speciation process. We investigated habitat selection by sister species of tree squirrels, the Douglas squirrel and the red squirrel, that have evolved in different forest types in allopatry and hybridize in a transitional forest. We first used genome-wide SNP data and admixture analyses to classify individuals into parental or hybrid classes. Next, we estimated home ranges with radio telemetry data and then used a novel ground-based lidar system to measure forest canopy structure of squirrel home ranges, midden sites, and marginally used forest habitat. We found hybrids consisting of multiple hybrid classes were intermixed with both parental species in the same forest with varying canopy structure complexity. On average, Douglas squirrels utilized forests with slightly greater structural complexity than either red squirrels or hybrids, while marginally used forests were the least structurally complex. Interestingly, hybrid squirrels were not relegated to marginal habitat and were successful in mating among each other and with both parental species. As such, our study suggests that prezygotic-ecological isolation and postzygotic-hybrid infertility, and postzygotic ecological inviability of hybrids are not strong barriers in the speciation process between Douglas squirrels and red squirrels. Significance statement: Closely related species that become geographically divided often encounter different environments and thus evolve different adaptations. Sometimes, these species meet again and produce hybrids. Hybrids often have lower fitness due to their inferior adaptations. We studied a pair of closely related squirrels that evolved in different environments and meet and produce hybrids in a secondary contact zone. Despite these species evolving in allopatry in very different forest types, they do not select different forest characteristics while in sympatry in the hybrid zone. Furthermore, hybrids do not show major differences in types of habitats that they choose and are capable of defending territories and reproducing among each other and with both parental species. In summary, prezygotic and postzygotic isolating mechanisms associated with habitat selection do not appear to have an important role in promoting species divergence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An 18-question survey was sent to all state wildlife agency directors in an attempt to evaluate state wildlife agencies’ response to administrative oversight of nuisance wildlife control operators (NWCO). Forty-four (88%) of the state wildlife agencies responded to the survey. Almost every state agency responding believes they should promote the growth and privatization of the NWCO industry. They also believe that their agency should provide administrative oversight. There were descrepancies in what agency personnel believe constitute oversight versus what policies are actually implemented. Although most agencies believe NWCO should be licensed, only 56% of states actually require licensing. Most agencies responding believe NWCO should be required to complete an educational program and a written examination prior to receiving a license, currently only 22% require some form of education prior to obtaining a license, and 15% require an examination prior to obtaining a license. Sixty percent of agencies believe NWCO should show evidence of financial responsibility and only 5% of states actually require NWCO to have liability insurance or post a surety bond. Fifty-six percent of the states require NWCO to submit written reports that document the number of each animal species captured (51%), disposition of animals (44%), location of capture animals (34%), release site information (22%), condition of captured animal (7%), and euthanization method (5%). Most states allow nuisance wildlife to be released on both private (90%) and public land (71%). Approximately one-third of agencies have changed laws, policies, or regulations regarding NWCO and 47% of these changes are perceived to be more restrictive of NWCO activities. Most state agencies (78%) allow relocation of nuisance wildlife, but 17% of the states have restrictions on what species can be relocated. The primary reason for not allowing relocation of nuisance wildlife are disease (100%), impacts to resident wildlife populations (45%), humane reasons (18%), and a lack of suitable release sites (9%). These results show that state agencies believe they should encourage the growth and privatization of NWCO industry and that they should maintain administrative oversight.

Increased urbanization and decreased government funding, plus increased numbers of certain wildlife species, have combined to provide a greater need for wildlife management of nuisance animals in the urban environment.  The author cites data from a 1989 National Pest Control Association survey of private wildlife pest control services, which notes that the most common species complaints deal with mice and rats, squirrels, birds, and bats, followed by raccoons, skunks, moles, and others.  The biology of, damage caused by, and effective damage control methods for tree squirrels, raccoons, skunks, and opossums are discussed.

The present study was undertaken to describe Cryptosporidium spp. infection in tree squirrels from 17 locations in Northern Italy. A total of 357 squirrels were examined, including species native to Europe ( Sciurus vulgaris ; n = 123), and species introduced from North America ( Sciurus carolinensis ; n = 162) and Southeast Asia ( Callosciurus erythraeus ; n = 72). Faecal samples of all squirrels were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium infection by microscopy (flotation method) and PCR/sequence analysis of the Cryptosporidium 18S rRNA, actin, and gp60 genes. Despite the overlapping ranges of native and introduced tree squirrel species in the study area, they host different Cryptosporidium spp. Sciurus vulgaris were exclusively infected with Cryptosporidium ferret genotype (n = 13) belonging to three novel gp60 subtypes, VIIIb–VIIId. Sciurus carolinensis hosted C. ubiquitum subtype XIIb (n = 2), Cryptosporidium skunk genotype subtype XVIa (n = 3), and chipmunk genotype I subtype XIVa (n = 1). Cryptosporidium chipmunk genotype I subtype XIVa was also found in two C. erythraeus . Comparing data from this and previous studies, we propose that Cryptosporidium skunk genotype and possibly C. ubiquitum subtype XIIb were introduced to Europe with eastern grey squirrels. Cryptosporidium chipmunk genotype I and ferret genotype were associated with high intensity infections, but there was no association with diarrhoea. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scatter-hoarding animals face the task of maximizing retrieval of their scattered food caches while minimizing loss to pilferers. This demand should select for mnemonics, such as chunking, i.e. a hierarchical cognitive representation that is known to improve recall. Spatial chunking, where caches with the same type of content are related to each other in physical location and memory, would be one such mechanism. Here we tested the hypothesis that scatter-hoarding eastern fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) are organizing their caches in spatial patterns consistent with a chunking strategy. We presented 45 individual wild fox squirrels with a series of 16 nuts of four different species, either in runs of four of the same species or 16 nuts offered in a pseudorandom order. Squirrels either collected each nut from a different location or collected all nuts from a single location; we then mapped their subsequent cache distributions using GPS. The chunking hypothesis predicted that squirrels would spatially organize caches by nut species, regardless of presentation order. Our results instead demonstrated that squirrels spatially chunked their caches by nut species but only when caching food that was foraged from a single location. This first demonstration of spatial chunking in a scatter hoarder underscores the cognitive demand of scatter hoarding.

Wildlife-associated Cryptosporidium are an emerging cause of cryptosporidiosis in humans. The present study was undertaken to determine the extent to which North American tree squirrels and ground squirrels host zoonotic Cryptosporidium species and genotypes. Fragments of the Cryptosporidium 18S rRNA and actin genes were amplified and sequenced from fecal samples obtained from three tree squirrel and three ground squirrel species. In tree squirrels, Cryptosporidium was identified in 40.5% (17/42) of American red squirrels ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ), 40.4% (55/136) of eastern gray squirrels ( Sciurus carolinensis ), and 28.6% (2/7) of fox squirrels ( Sciurus niger ). Human-pathogenic Cryptosporidium ubiquitum and Cryptosporidium skunk genotype were the most prevalent species/genotypes in tree squirrels. Because tree squirrels live in close proximity to humans and are frequently infected with potentially zoonotic Cryptosporidium species/genotypes, they may be a significant reservoir of infection in humans. In ground squirrels, Cryptosporidium was detected in 70.2% (33/47) of 13-lined ground squirrels ( Ictidomys tridecemlineatus ), 35.1% (27/77) of black-tailed prairie dogs ( Cynomys ludovicianus ), and the only golden-mantled ground squirrel ( Callospermophilus lateralis ) that was sampled. Cryptosporidium rubeyi and ground squirrel genotypes I, II, and III were identified in isolates from these ground squirrel species. In contrast to the Cryptosporidium infecting tree squirrels, these species/genotypes appear to be specific for ground squirrels and are not associated with human disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat fragmentation, destruction, and disturbance are major threats to biodiversity. Global road networks represent one of the most significant human impacts on ecosystems, and a spatially extensive source of anthropogenic disturbance and noise. We developed a novel approach by combining traffic monitoring with noise mapping on the basis of a standardized traffic-noise stimulus generated by controlled vehicle operation to investigate temporal and spatial heterogeneity of traffic noise. We used animal presence or absence, radio-telemetric monitoring of space use, and remotely sensed habitat characteristics with occupancy modeling and spatial analysis to assess influences of distance from roads, habitat characteristics, and traffic noise level on site occupancy and space use of Mt. Graham red squirrels ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis ). Traffic noise had spatially extensive and negative effects on site occupancy. Animal occurrence decreased as traffic noise increased after accounting for distance from roads. Traffic noise levels in animal core home ranges were lower than noise levels within total home ranges. Our study disentangled effects of traffic noise from confounding environmental characteristics and demonstrated the chronic impacts of traffic noise on animal distribution. We highlight the importance of incorporating spatial and temporal heterogeneity of traffic noise at a local scale when investigating effects of anthropogenic noise on wildlife. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using acorns from Castanea henryi (CH) and Quercus variabilis (QV) with contrasting germination schedule (related to food perishability) and tannin levels, we conducted field experiments in a subtropical forest in Southwest China to investigate how free-ranging Pallas's squirrels (Callosciurus erythraeus) utilize acorns as long-term storage based on the food perishability and high-tannin hypotheses. Though QV acorns germinated much earlier than CH ones, we found that Pallas's squirrels hoarded more high-tannin QV acorns over low-tannin CH ones, supporting the high-tannin hypothesis (but not the food perishability hypothesis). However, several other predictions derived from the food perishability hypothesis received sound support: nondormant QV acorns had their embryos removed with a higher probability (68.5%) than dormant CH ones (8.8%) and embryo-removed acorns had a much lower germination success but had a higher probability surviving as long-term storage. During the caching-recovery process, hoarding animals actively detected acorn state (dormant or not) and removed acorn embryos with an increasing probability in subsequent hoarding events. In addition, embryo-removed acorns could serve as long-term storage because they had a very low probability being infested by fungi as intact acorns did during the time of storage. We conclude that tree squirrels can differentially respond to acorn germination and remove the embryos of nondormant acorns more frequently as long-term storage, but tannin level is more important in determining whether a given acorn is hoarded or not. Combined with the studies from North America, our results suggest convergent evolution of acorn hoarding behavior in tree squirrels across different continents. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

For squirrels, physical size varies with ancestry, locomotion, and sex. Body length has little variation associated with subfamilies or tribes but varies significantly among genera within tribes. Thus, patterns in body size among genera represent more recent evolutionary pressures. Flying squirrels weigh less than similarly sized tree or ground squirrels but ecological profile and ancestry are confounded for flying squirrels. Tail length has clear relationships with ecological profile in squirrels. Tail length is shorter in ground squirrels, longer in tree squirrels, and longest in flying squirrels. In addition, in arboreal squirrels, females have longer tails, relative to body length, than those of males. This latter result suggests that reproductive constraints can influence external features of morphology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The distinctive features of reproduction in squirrels are the lack of allometric influences on the duration of reproductive investment; the strong allometric influences on offspring mass; and a trade-off between number and size of young, suggesting an important developmental component to reproduction. Lengths of gestation and lactation do not vary with body size but neonatal and weaning mass do. Apparently, the major constraint on reproduction in squirrels is not resources per se (food, calories, minerals, or water) but rather the length of time such resources are available. Squirrels adjust growth rate to fit the timing of resource abundance. Within the familial reproductive pattern, arboreal squirrels invest more into reproduction than do ground squirrels. Flying squirrels (Pteromyini) have a larger temporal investment into reproduction but a smaller energetic investment compared with other squirrels. Ground squirrels do not have a distinct reproductive profile, because marmotine and nonmarmotine ground squirrels differ. Marmotine ground squirrels have a small temporal investment and a large energetic investment on a per litter but not on an annual basis. Nonmarmotine ground squirrels have a reproductive pattern similar to that of tree squirrels, a pattern intermediate between marmotines and flying squirrels. Within this locomotor--ecological framework, reproductive patterns differ among subfamilies. Tribes differ in having few (2-4) versus many (4-8) young, and in the relative allocation of investment into gestation versus lactation. Specific environmental influences on reproduction in squirrels occur at lower taxonomic levels within the framework of a broad reproductive pattern set by earlier radiations into particular locomotor and nestsite niches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Squirrel poxvirus (SQPV) is a well-documented example of pathogen-mediated competition between an invasive species, the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), and a native species, the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). SQPV causes disease with high mortality in red squirrels but appears non-pathogenic in grey squirrels. Not all populations of introduced grey squirrels carry the virus, notably those in Scotland and Italy, and the rate of red squirrel replacement by grey squirrels is some twenty times faster in those areas where grey squirrels carry the virus. Here we develop strategies to manage the SQPV disease threat to red squirrels by reference to the largest, designated red squirrel refuge site in England, Kielder Forest (50000ha). Using modelling techniques, we identify four main corridors within the buffer zone by which grey squirrels will reach Kielder, initially within two years and in large numbers within 10 years. Assuming that greys will not settle within Kielder because of the unfavourable nature of the spruce habitat, we predict that SQPV disease will burn out at the edges of the forest, although many red squirrels will die. This burn-out is unlikely to be the scenario in other refuge areas where the habitat is more favourable to greys. We conclude that the conservation of red squirrels will depend on minimising contact between red and grey squirrel populations, and we advocate monitoring grey squirrels in corridors within buffer zones around refuge areas, and removing them when detected. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We examined hematological parameters in four related sciurid species in the late summer–autumn to assess the role of habitat, elevation, body size, and behavior in shaping these parameters. Red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) and Arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii) were sampled in southwestern Yukon, yellow-pine chipmunks (Tamias amoenus) in southern Alberta, and the eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in southern Ontario. We obtained whole blood samples from each species and compared glucose levels, red blood cell characteristics (hematocrit, red blood cell count, hemoglobin concentration, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration), and white blood cell counts (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils) across species. We found species differences in glucose and red blood cell characteristics that may be a function of activity levels, phylogeny, or elevation, but not of body size, body condition, or adaptations to a semi-fossorial habitat. We also found species differences in white blood cell counts that remain unexplained by any single simple explanation and may be more useful for comparison of individuals within a given species than for interspecies comparisons. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A lack of quantitative information on life history of the western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus) has hampered conservation and management efforts across its range. We report on data from 21 squirrels radiotracked in Klickitat County, Washington, from 1998 to 1999 to examine the interaction between home-range size, sex, and season. Home-range estimates were calculated by using minimum convex polygon and fixed kernel methods. Only adult animals with ≥40 relocations were included in total home-range comparisons. Estimates of 95% minimum convex polygon home range in Washington averaged 73.0 ha for males (n = 9) and 21.6 ha for females (n = 12) for year-round use, significantly larger than those from Oregon and California. Differences in homerange size of males and females were significant. Fixed kernel and minimum convex polygon estimates were similar in size. We suggest that near the northern limit of the species' geographic range low species richness, low abundance, and a patchy distribution of mast-producing vegetation result in large male and female home ranges, low overlap of female home ranges, and a sparsely distributed squirrel population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing problem of wildlife damage in urban and suburban areas is discussed. Some tools and techniques useful in more rural areas are not appropriate for use in urban settings, because of potential nontarget hazards, potential complaints about noise, or other reasons. Control methods recommended in suburbia are often less effective, more time consuming, and more costly the methods used in rural or agricultural areas. Solutions to urban and suburban problems with rabbits and jackrabbits, pocket gophers, moles, ground squirrels, tree squirrels, skunks, opossums, raccoons, and bird are discussed.

There is a demand for more progressive restoration directives to regenerate forest ecosystems impacted by harvesting, wildfire, insect outbreaks, and mineral resource extraction. Forest restoration may take many decades and even centuries without active silvicultural intervention to grow large trees that provide suitable habitat for various wildlife species. We tested the hypotheses (H) that, compared with unmanaged (unthinned and old-growth) stands, large-scale precommercial thinning (heavy thinning to <500 stems/ha) of young lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia), at 20–25 years post-treatment, would enhance: (H1) the architecture of large overstory trees (e.g., diameter, height, and crown dimensions); (H2) mean (i) total abundance and species diversity of forest-floor small mammals, (ii) abundance of tree squirrels; and (H3) relative habitat use by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). There were three levels of thinning with mean densities of crop trees/ha: 353 (low), 712 (medium) and 1288 (high), an unthinned, and old-growth stand replicated at three areas in south-central British Columbia, Canada. Mammal abundance and habitat use were measured during the period 2013 to 2015. Mean diameter of crop trees was significantly different among stands with the low-density, medium-density, and old-growth stands having diameters larger than the high-density and unthinned stands. Mean height of crop trees was highest in the old-growth stands. Mean crown volume of crop trees was significantly different among stands with the low-density stands 2.1 to 5.8 times higher than the high-density, unthinned, and old-growth stands, and hence partial support for H1. Mean total abundance of forest-floor small mammals was significantly different among stands with the low-density and old-growth stands 1.9 to 2.4 times higher than the other three treatment stands. Mean abundances per stand of the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) (range of 4.8 to 12.0) and the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) (range of 3.2 to 4.3) were similar among stands. Mean relative habitat use by mule deer was similar among stands, but variable with counts of pellet-groups/ha in the thinned stands were 3.8 to 4.2 and 2.1 to 2.3 times higher than the unthinned and old-growth stands, respectively. Thus, mean total abundance of forest-floor small mammals of H2 was supported, but species diversity and abundance of tree squirrels was not. Enhanced relative habitat use by mule deer (H3) was not supported. To our knowledge, this is the first concurrent measurement of several mammal species in heavily thinned, unthinned, and old-growth forest across three replicate study areas at 20–25 years post-treatment. Although not all mammal responses were significant, there was a strong indication that restored forests via heavy thinning (<500 trees/ha) produced large overstory trees (at least for diameter and crown dimensions) in stands 33 to 42 years old. Comparable old-growth stands, albeit with crop trees of greater height and merchantable volume, ranged from 120 to 167 years of age. Restored forests with large trees capable of supporting at least these mammal species may be achieved in decades rather than centuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]