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The mouse-deer or chevrotains are the smallest of the ungulates and ruminants. They are characterized by a number of traits which are considered plesiomorphic for the Artiodactyla order. The objective of this study was to examine sleep in the lesser mouse-deer (Tragulus kanchil), which is the smallest in this group (body mass < 2.2 kg). Electroencephalogram, nuchal electromyogram, electrooculogram, and body acceleration were recorded in four adult mouse-deer females using a telemetry system in Bu Gia Map National Park in Vietnam. The mouse-deer spent on average 49.7 ± 3.0% of 24 h in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. REM sleep occupied 1.7 ± 0.3% of 24 h or 3.2 ± 0.5% of total sleep time. The average duration of REM sleep episodes was 2.0 ± 0.2 min, the average maximum was 5.1 ± 1.1 min, and the longest episodes lasted 8 min. NREM sleep occurred in sternal recumbency with the head held above the ground while 64.7 ± 6.4% of REM sleep occurred with the head resting on the ground. The eyes were open throughout most of the NREM sleep period. The mouse-deer displayed polyphasic sleep and crepuscular peaks in activity (04:00–06:00 and 18:00–19:00). The largest amounts of NREM occurred in the morning (06:00–09:00) and the smallest before dusk (at 04:00–06:00). REM sleep occurred throughout most of the daylight hours (08:00–16:00) and in the first half of the night (19:00–02:00). We suggest that the pattern and timing of sleep in the lesser mouse-deer is adapted to the survival of a small herbivorous animal, subject to predation, living in high environmental temperatures in the tropical forest undergrowth.

The upper Miocene vertebrate locality of Kucukcekmece West, European Turkey, had provided an artiodactyl assemblage that is rich in species but poor in specimens. The present study allows revising previous artiodactyl lists provided for this site, by recognizing Hippopotamodon cf. antiquus, Dorcatherium maliki n. sp., Palaeotragus sp. (large size), Palaeogiraffa pamiri (Ozansoy, 1965), Bohlinia cf. attica, Gazella cf. ancyrensis, Majoreas cf. elegans, Prostrepsiceros sp., aff. Protoryx cf. enanus, cf. Miotragocerus sp., and Bovidae indet. (large size). The presence of a second suine and a cervid are poorly supported by current data but not excluded. The bulk of this artiodactyl association is also recognized in the Kucukcekmece East fossil assemblage. The Kucukcekmece tragulid is allocated to a new species of a medium sized Dorcatherium with bunoselenodont dentition, long premolars, tricuspid dp2 (p2) and p3, long hypoconid on dp2 and p3, simple distal fossette on p4, and presence of a lingual pr...

Current scientific knowledge of Tertiary fossils from south of the Ailao Shan-Red River shear zone is extremely poor, in sharp contrast with the situation nowadays, as the area of Laos and Vietnam is regarded as a global hotspot of biodiversity. In this context, the few localities that yielded fossil assemblages are of first importance for the understanding of Cenozoic palaeobiogeography and the tectonic and palaeogeographical evolution of the region. Hang Mon 1 (Son La Province, Northern Vietnam) was the first site that provided evidence of Tertiary mammals, but its age remained very controversial, interpretations ranging from Oligocene to Late Miocene. Herein, we re-investigate the mammal fauna of the locality based on newly collected material and previously published fossil mammals. A new outcrop, Hang Mon 2, provides evidence of the rhinoceroses Pleuroceros blanfordi and Bugtirhinus sp. Together with the earlier finds of uncommonly small-sized Protaceratherium, these fossils allow a correlation to the earliest Miocene (most probably ranging from ~23 to ~21 Ma; Aquitanian) based on faunal comparison with the Sulaiman Province of Pakistan. The revision of the mammals from Hang Mon 1 is in agreement with this stratigraphic proposal. In addition, the discoveries from Vietnam (the rhinocerotid assemblage and Hyotherium) further support the hypothesis of strong biogeographical and environmental affinities between Europe, the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia (Vietnam) during the Aquitanian., The excavations and fossil preparation were financially supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG; Grant Numbers BO 1550/11-1, 2). Several of the authors are members of the GDRI (International research Network) entitled “Paleobiodiversity of South East Asia” sponsored by the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS).

O'Leary, Maureen A. (2016): Comparative Basicranial Anatomy Of Extant Terrestrial And Semiaquatic Artiodactyla Maureen A. O'Leary. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 2016 (409): 1, DOI: 10.1206/0003-0090-409.1.1, URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/10.1206/0003-0090-409.1.1

Although Togo is a relatively small country in West Africa, it is characterized by a wide variation of vegetation zones ranging from moist forests to arid savannahs, including the “Dahomey Gap”. There has been no comprehensive documentation of the native mammal fauna of Togo since 1893. Our review of the extant and extirpated mammals ofT ogo includes 178 species, with Chiroptera (52 species) and Rodentia (47 species) being the most speciose groups. This number does not include additional species recorded along the borders ofT ogo, and whose presence inside the country is not verified. Seven species of mammals are presumably extinct in the country but we confirmed that two species of large ungulates, reputed to be extinct, survive in remote forest habitats. Ecological Zone IV, sustaining the moist forest areas, and Ecological Zone I, inclusive of all the relatively undisturbed dry savannahs of the extreme North of the country are the most important regions for mammal diversity and conservation.

Genus Dorcatherium Kaup & Scholl, 1934 TYPE SPECIES. — Dorcatherium naui Kaup & Scholl, 1834 by original designation., Published as part of Kostopoulos, Dimitris S. & Sen, Sevket, 2016, Suidae, Tragulidae, Giraffidae, and Bovidae, pp. 273-298 in Geodiversitas 38 (2) on page 277, DOI: 10.5252/g2016n2a8, http://zenodo.org/record/4535553

New remains of the small tragulid Dorcatherium songhorensis Whitworth, 1958 from the Early Miocene fossil site of Napak XXI (Uganda) include the first significant sample of postcranial bones from this species ever described. The limb bones of this tragulid are very similar to that described in the Miocene Asian long-legged tragulids of the genus Siamotragulus Thomas et al., 1990, a type previously unknown in the African Miocene. A cladistic analysis links D. songhorensis to a Siamotragulus clade as its basal offshoot, so we propose the name Siamotragulus songhorensis (Whitworth, 1958) for this species. Also, the Siamotragulus clade belongs to a monophyletic group that includes Afrotragulus Sánchez et al., 2010 and the extant Asian genera Moschiola and Tragulus. This inclusive clade is characterized by both a derived selenodont dentition and an advanced postcranial skeleton. Additionally Siamotragulus shows some cursorial refinements reflected in its postcranial skeleton including the pecoran-like metatarsals III–IV. Siamotragulus songhorensis shows that the genus Siamotragulus was not endemic to Asia as previously thought, and that a highly diverse guild of tragulids, including different members of the advanced selenodont clade, inhabited Africa as early as the Early Miocene (19–20 Ma)., This study is part of the research project CGL2011-25754 (Spanish Government, MINECO), and the Research Group CAM-UCM 910607.

10. Water Chevrotain Hyemoschus aquaticus French: Chevrotain aquatique / German: Hirschferkel / Spanish: Ciervo ratén acuatico Taxonomy. Moschus aquaticus Ogilby, 1841, Bulham Creek, Sierra Leone. The Water Chevrotain is thought to be the most ancestral of the extant tragulids, with its lineage separating from the species in Asia about 35 million years ago. Morphologically Hyemoschus shows many similarities with the Pliocene genus Dorcatherium of Africa and Europe, and both genera are quite distinct from the Asian Tragulus and Moschiola species. Geographic variation in Hyemoschus is poorly understood. Three subspecies have been named, but the validity of these names is questionable, and craniometrically these taxa are indistinguishable. Subspecies and Distribution. H.a.aquaticusOgilby,1841—WAfricafromGuineaandSierraLeonetoGhana. H.a.bates:Lydekker,1906—Nigeria,Cameroon,andpresumablyneighboringcountries. H. a. cottoni Lydekker, 1906 — Republic of the Congo, DR Congo, and presumably Uganda. The Water Chevrotain reportedly has a disjunct distribution, occurring in coastal forests from West Africa and in the rainforests of Central Africa from Nigeria to DR Congo, marginally entering Uganda. It has been listed for the following countries in Central Africa: Angola (Cabinda), Cameroon, Central African Republic, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, and Uganda (Semliki Valley). A record from Angola’s Lunda Norte Province, near the Cassai River,is the southernmost record of the species. The species’ status in some countries remains unclear. It is apparently absent from the Republic of Benin and Togo (but the speciesis listed as probable in the Ot Basin in Togo); its supposed occurrence in Guinea Bissau and Senegal remains unsupported by evidence. The species was listed for Sierra Leone, although its presence had been called into question. Photographic evidence seems to clarify that the species occurs in Sierra Leone. In 1850, a specimen was recorded from Gambia, but the present status of the species is unclear. Local people report the species from the Boké Préfecture in NW Guinea, which might be the northernmost area from which the species has been recently reported. Extensive field and market surveys there and in the southern Guinea savanna belt did notfind evidence for the species’ presence. Descriptive notes. Head—body 60-102 cm, tail 7.2-10. 9 cm; weight 7-16 kg, with considerable regional variation in size. The Water Chevrotain has a stocky, rounded body and thin legs. Its hindquarters are powerfully muscled, and much higher than the shoulders, giving the body a sloped appearance. The neck is short and thick, and the small head is narrow and pointed, ending in a pointed, leathery nose with slit-like nostrils. The ears are rounded, but apparently quite long compared to other chevrotain species. Unusual for chevrotains and for ungulates in general, female Water Chevrotains are larger than males, weighing on average over 2 kg more than the males. The shorthaired coat is an overall rich chestnut brown color above and white on the undersides. The body is marked with horizontal white stripes running along the sides from the shoulder to the rump, with white spots on the back arranged in curved vertical rows. Such color patterns presumably provide camouflage during the day through their resemblance to dimpled sunlight on the dark forest undergrowth. There appears to be considerable variation in color and arrangement of the spots and lines, but it is unclear whether this variation allows for the consistent grouping of geographic variants. The chin, throat, and chest are white, covered in coarse hair, and broken up by bold transverse brown stripes that connect to the brown of the flanks. A dark brown lateral band separates the white of the throat stripes from the white of the chest. The tail is pale brown above and has fluffy white fur underneath. The legs are darkish brown. Neither sex has horns or antlers. However, as in other chevrotains, the upper canines are well developed and saber-like in males, flanking the mouth on either side of the lower jaw. Females also have enlarged canines, but they are shorter and blunter than in males. Male Water Chevrotains possess unique glands under the chin in the angle of the lower jaw. Like its Asian cousins, the Water Chevrotain is a good swimmer and can dive underwater or walk along the river bottom to elude predators. It can close its nostrils to keep water out. The species will rarely stray far from a water source, and it will retreat to water and jump in when threatened. When walking, the head is held low, allowing the Water Chevrotain to penetrate virtually impassable thickets and creating a nearly perfectly cone-shaped profile. The efficiency of this tunneling profile is enhanced by a shield of thick, reinforced skin on the dorsal surface, which protects the back from injuries inflicted by dense, resistant vegetation. This thick skin extends to the rump and throat. Habitat. Like other chevrotains, Hyemoschus is confined to closed-canopy, moist tropical lowland forest, and within this habitat it concentrates in areas in the vicinity of streams and rivers. The species is, however, not a swamp specialist, and is often found in mature upland forest areas. Its range is thought to be limited by climatic factors: the species prefers habitats with very low seasonality and rainfall equal to or greater than 1500 mm /year, and it does not occur in areas that are even moderately seasonally arid. The species forages in clearings, floodplains, and along river banks at night, and retires to a hiding spot in dense cover during the day. Food and Feeding. The Water Chevrotain is primarily a frugivore, and it has been suggested that year-round availability of fruits could be a key limiting habitat factor. Stomach content analysis of 19 animals in Gabon revealed that fruits comprise 68-7% of all foods eaten, which appears to be less than its Asian cousins. The rest of the diet includes leaves (9-9%), petioles and stems (20-5%), animal matter (0-14%), flowers (0-7%), and fungi (0-13%). Compared to duikers—small frugivores that share its habitat—the Water Chevrotain eats relatively little fruit and fungi, but many more succulent stems, and year-round fruit availability might not be as crucial a determinant for the species’ presence as suggested by a few ecological studies. At least 76 species of fruits have been identified in the species’ diet, with preferred species including Cylindropsis parvifolia (Apocynaceae), Bombax buonopozense (Bombacaceae), Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbiaceae), Coelocaryon preussi and Pycnanthus angolensis (Myristicaceae), and Cissus dinklager (Vitaceae). In addition to these fruits, figs (Ficus spp.), Pseudospondias fruits, palm nuts (Elaeis), and breadfruit (Treculia) are consumed, as well as the fruits of gingers and arrowroots. Most fruits consumed are small to medium-sized, with a diameter between 0-5 cm and 2 cm. Water Chevrotains also feed on insects; they actively hunt for ants by licking the ground along ant trails. Apparently crabs, carrion, and scavenged fish also feature in the species’ diet. The Water Chevrotain consumes significantly less animal matter and fungus during the dry season,as well as 44% fewer fruit species. Young individuals that are still nursing eat smaller amounts offruit than adults (only 48:4% of the diet) and a larger proportion ofleaves (31:3%). Breeding. Due to the secretive nature of this species, little is known aboutits life cycle, and reports about breeding behavior often vary considerably. Olfactory communication is important in this species, and feces and urine are deposited anywhere. Both sexes announce their presence with these excrements, which are mixed with an excretion from the anal (male and female) and preputial (male) glands. The interramal gland is occasionally used for marking twigs. The Water Chevrotain also communicates through vocalizations, including an alarm bark. When fighting, females produce a high pulsing chatter. As with pigs, male Water Chevrotains typically vocalize through a closed mouth, when following a female in estrus. While being followed, a receptive female will stop at each cry, allowing the male to lick her rump. After several repetitions of this, the male mounts. An estrous female will mate with a male with whom she shares a home range. She gives birth to one, or occasionally two precocial fawns. Reported gestation lengths range from four to nine months, and it is unclear whether there are errors in these estimates or that indeed this wide range occurs under natural conditions. In Gabon, births occur throughout the year, although there is a peak in births in January and July-August, at the beginning of the twice-annual dry seasons. Infants are usually found separate from their mothers, “lying up” for the first three months of life. During this initial hiding period, the mother will visit her offspring periodically to suckle, at which time small infants are also washed using the tongue. Lactation lasts 3-6 months. The young disperse from the mother’s home range when they reach sexual maturity at 9-26 months of age. Maximum longevity is normally eight years of age, but the species has a potential lifespan of 11-13 years. Activity patterns. The species is thought to be exclusively nocturnal in the wild, being active almost always between dusk and dawn. In a captive population in Monrovia Zoo, Liberia, activity patterns showed that the species was active 4% of the day and 67% of the night. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Water Chevrotain is mainly solitary. Male territories overlap those of females, but the males are rarely aggressive toward each other, unlike some of the Tragulus species from Asia, in which males frequently fight other males. Although Water Chevrotains do occasionally fight, using their tusks as weapons, they apparently prefer to avoid each other and keep to themselves. Fights are typically short in duration. Two competing males will rush at each other with their mouths open, poke at each other with their muzzles, and bite, using the canines in the upper jaw and incisors in the lower jaw. Females also fight but less frequently than males. Adult females occupy home ranges averaging 13-14 ha in size, and are typically accompanied by their latest offspring. Females usually remain in the same home range for life after they reach maturity. Males, on the other hand, are less sedentary, usually occupying an area for less than a year before moving on. The home ranges of males are typically larger than those of females, averaging 20-30 ha in size and overlapping with the home ranges of at least two females. In Gabon, recorded population densities were between 7-7 ind/km?® and 28 ind/km?, but in the Republic of the Congo, average densities appear to be lower, between 1-5 ind/km?® and 5 ind/ km?*. Whether such variation is due to ecological factors or caused by factors such as hunting is unclear. In West Africa, the species is apparently much rarer and densities presumably lower. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, with the main threats being habitat loss, through agriculture and expanding human development, and hunting for bushmeat. Due to its secretive nature, there is little information on its status in individual countries within its extensive range, although there is some evidence that it is declining in specific areas. In the Niger Delta, the species was described originally as widespread in almost all freshwater habitats, but is now rare in all but the most remote areas, and rapidly becoming extinct in upland areas. The species is hunted for human consumption throughout its range. In Liberia, for example, the Water Chevrotain ranked second in a taste preference survey in eight urban communities. In south-west Cameroon, one animal fetches about US $ 6 in local markets, giving some idea of the commercial value of such species in places where most people earn less than US $ 1/day. In the central Ituri Forest, DR Congo, Water Chevrotains are regularly caught by net hunters, and consistently represent about 5% of the total catch, even in areas that have been hunted for years. Hunting appears to vary seasonally with the majority of animals entering markets in Equatorial Guinea at the start of the wet season. Bibliography Ansell (1974), Barnett & Prangley (1997), Barnett et al. (1996), Barrie & Camara (2006), Blench (2007), Coe (1975), Crawford-Cabral & Verissimo (2005), Dubost (1975, 1978, 1979, 1984, 2001), Dubost & Feer (1992), East (1999), Gautier-Hion, Duplantier et al. (1985), Gautier-Hion, Emmons et al. (1980), Gray (1850), Happold (1973), Hart (1986), Hoyt (2004), Huffman (2010), Institute of Applied Ecology (1998), IUCN/ SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2008), Juste et al. (1995), Kingdon (1997), Newing (2001), Nowak (1999), Pickford et al. (2004), Rahm & Christiaense (1966), Robin (1990), Sidney (1965), Steel (1994), Willcox & Nambu (2007)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 333-334, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

4. Silver-backed Chevrotain Tragulus versicolor French: Chevrotain du Vietnam / German: Annam-Kantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratdn plateado Taxonomy. Tragulus versicolor Thomas, 1910, Nhatrang, Annam, Viet Nam. This species 1 monotypic. Distribution. If still extant, the species would likely occur in Vietnam, and possibly in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The true distribution of the species is unknown, because there has been very little awareness of the species. Surveys have not sought it, because many have assumed that only one species, Tragulus kanchil, occurs in most of Indochina. Descriptive notes. Head-body 40 cm, tail 5 cm, hindfoot 11 cm, ear 3-5 cm; weight 1-7 kg (all measurements from one specimen). The upperparts of 7. versicolor have a characteristic shabrack or saddlecloth appearance. The fur on the back is uniformly grayish-silver and relatively dense; the hairs are conspicuously tipped with white. The area of the neck and shoulders, although quite uniform in color, is visibly separated from the back in having more brownish and less dense fur. Thesides of the neck possess a somewhat different pattern of pelage structure. The fur of the neck appears to have a coarser, less spiny appearance compared to the sympatric 7. kanchil. This coarse hair was one of the characteristics used to describe the species initially. There are no dark lines from the eye to the nose. Some specimens have a throat pattern with three white and two colored stripes, which are characters of 7. kanchil, whereas there are others with the napwlike five white and four dark stripes. The white area of the underparts in 1. versicolor continues uninterrupted from the chin towards the groin area, and there is no transverse brownish collar below the throat, unlike most other Tragulus species. Also, there are no darker-colored markings along the sides and midlines of the belly, which are characteristic of 71. kanchilin Vietnam. The skull of 7. versicolor is significantly smaller than in all other Tragulus species, but relatively wide, with wide bullae and very long nasals. Compared to T. napu and T. kanchil, the large auditory bullae are much more rounded and inflated. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. Because no specimens have been traced to specific habitats, and there are no observations of the species in the wild, nothing is known about its habitat preferences. Food and Feeding. Nothing known. Breeding. Nothing known. Activity patterns. Nothing known. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List. There is no information on the current range or population status of 7. versicolor because of a lack of survey work for the species in appropriate areas of Vietnam. Therefore the species cannot be assessed against range size or population trend criteria. No strong ecological correlates are sufficiently known to allow assessment of population trends through habitat trends. The species’ resilience to hunting is not known. Although there is only one record since 1907, there is no reason to consider it a possibly Extinct candidate, because the paucity of records is assumed to reflect the lack of suitable surveys. A more informed judgment when sufficient data are available is likely to indicate that it is threatened. The population is almost certainly declining due to severe hunting pressure for ground-dwelling mammals, resulting in population reductions of even the most resilient species; it may be found to warrant a very high threat category, particularly as there is no evidence of presence in high altitudes. Bibliography. Kuznetsov & Borissenko (2004), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2004), Thomas (1910), Timmins et al. (2008)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 330, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

Family TRAGULIDAE (CHEVROTAINS) • Small mammals with stocky body, small head without antlers, large eyes, and short, thin legs; male with enlarged upper canines. • 40-110 cm. • Afrotropical and Indo-Malayan Regions. • Dense wooded habitats, dryland, and riverine subtropical and tropical forests. • 3 genera, 10 species, 33 taxa. • | species Endangered; none Extinct since 1600., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 320, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

3. Indian Chevrotain Moschiola indica French: Chevrotain indien / German: Indien-Kantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratén indio Taxonomy. Meminna indica Gray, 1843, “Eastern Ghats”, India. This species is monotypic. Distribution. Peninsular India and possibly S Nepal. Descriptive notes. Head-body 55-59 cm, tail 2-5 cm; weight 3 kg. Moschiola species differ from 7 Tragulus, and resemble Hyemoschus in the pattern of the pelage on the flanks and in lacking a large gland between the mandiblesat the front of the lower law. The Indian Chevrotain is a relatively large chevrotain species, with long hindlegs and broad skull, especially across rostrum. The pelage is dull brown; stripes and spots are a very clear white; the upper row of spots forms a continuous stripe on the shoulder, but disintegrates into spots halfway back along the body, and other longitudinalstripes are broken completely into rows of elongated spots; the three spot-rows across croup and rump are partly fused to stripes; crown and forehead are dark brown; underside pale beige, becoming creamy medially. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. Tropical deciduous and moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the Peninsular Indian hills, plains, and plateaus, but also seen in tall elephant grass Cymbopogon. The species also occurs in montane forests up to around 1850 m elevation. It has been observed that the species often occurs along forest streams and rivers. In the Eastern Ghats it was observed that M. indica was very common, especially around the streams and “nullahs” (intermitent watercourses) which are essential for this species. Food and Feeding. Very little is known about the ecology and behavior of the Indian Chevrotain, and much of the information is in the form of anecdotal observations and sight records. It seems to mostly eat fruits and herbs, with fruit consumption of Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, and Garuga pinnata being reported; these are all common in the deciduous forests of India. In a study of fruit predation of the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica) M. indica and the Chital (Axis axis) were the most frequent frugivores, accounting for over 95% of fruit removal, with murid rodents accounting for less than 1%. The Indian Chevrotain is a frequent prey of Leopards (Panthera pardus) and Dholes (Cuon alpinus) but apparently rarely eaten by Tigers (Panthera tigris) and Golden Jackals (Canis aureus). Among the small carnivores, the Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii) is known to prey on the Indian Chevrotain, while the forest eagle owl (Bubo nipalensis) has been reported to predate on young ofthis species. Breeding. Mating apparently occurs inJune andJuly, with births taking place at the end of the rainy season, which normally runs from July to October during the south-west monsoon. The gestation period is about five months, and there are one or two young, with twins apparently being more common than in other tragulids. Mean weight at birth is 319 g. Maximum reported life span in captivity is six years and nine months. Activity patterns. Their activity appears to be mostly crepuscular and nocturnal. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There are no published estimates of population densities and population status of M. indica. As in other tragulids, the species is mostly encountered alone or rarely in pairs. During the day, the chevrotains stay concealed in dens that may be in hollows at the base of trees or in rocky crevices. They are also reported to be able to climb up sloping tree boles. Sometimes the species is encountered resting in leaf litter on the forest floor, where its dappled pelage acts as effective camouflage during the day. But like other chevrotains the Indian species seems to shun the light, and appears to be most active at night or around dusk and dawn. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. In India, M. indica appears to have been widespread, with records as far north as 28° N, but the present stronghold of the species is the forests of the Western Ghats. The historic presence of a tragulid was recently confirmed for Nepal and possibly parts of northern India. Because of the general biogeographic patterns in this country the species was thought to be most likely M. indica, although without any specimens and with a lack of knowledge of the taxonomic status of tragulids reported from areas such as Bangladesh, there is a small chance that one of the Tragulus species once occurred in Nepal. Either way, no recent confirmed records of tragulids exist from Nepal, and if still extant the taxon is likely endangered in that country. Indian Chevrotains are among the most frequently hunted animals in the forests where they occur. The chevrotains are actively hunted using hunting dogs to locate and flush out the animals and kill them. Even women and childrenjoin with men in hunting during the day. The team of hunters beats bushes and flushes animals toward nets held by people; there the animals are caught and killed. In addition, low wire snares with many nooses may be placed along the ground across trails to catch passing chevrotains. Traps are used for night hunting. Much of the hunting is for direct consumption, although wild meatis also sold in local markets in many places. Based on interview surveys in one district, over 75% of the interviewed hunters reported the Indian Chevrotain to be their most commonly hunted prey, with a similar percentage believing that overhunting was the main reason for the species’ decline. Bibliography. Baral et al. (2009), Champion (1929), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Gokula (1997), Hayssen et al. (1993), Krishnan (1972), Kumara & Singh (2004), Madhukumar (2002), Madhusudan & Karanth (2002), Mathew (2002), Mudappa (1999), Nandini (2005), Nowak (1999), Raman (2004), Stockley (1930), Tehsin (1980)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 329-330, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

5. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotain Tragulus kanchil French: Chevrotain kanchil / German: Kleinkantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratén pequeno Other common names: Kancil Taxonomy. Moschus kanchil Raffles, 1822, Bengkulu, Sumatra, Indonesia. Lesser Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review, and the authors were unable to assess the validity of all taxa. This includes Sfulvicollis from the Malacca Strait islands (Bengkalis, Padang, Rupat, Tebingtinggi, and Rangsam); pallidus from the small island of Laut, north of Bunguran, Natuna islands group; carimatae from Karimata Island, west of Borneo; lampensis from Lanbi Kyun (= Lampi) Island in the Mergui Archipelago; insularis from Phuket (= Junk Seylon), Ko Sirae (= Sireh) and Ko Yao Yai (= Panjang) islands; and lancavensis from Langkawi Island. Sixteen subspecies presently recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. T.k.kanchilRaffles,1822—Sumatra,islandsoffESumatra(Mendol&Berhala). T.k.abruptusChasen,1935—SubiI,oftWBorneo. T.k.affinisGray,1861—Vietnam,Laos,SE&EThailand,Cambodia. T.k.anambensisChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(MatakI). T.k.angustiaeKloss,1918—SMyanmar,SWThaimainland(probablylimitedtoWoftheChaoPhrayaRiver). T.k.everettiBonhote,1903—NatunaIs(Bunguran),offWBorneo. T.k.fulviventerGray,1836—SMalayPeninsula(Sof7°N). T.k.hosetBonhote,1903—Borneo(Sarawak,West,Central,East&SouthKalimantan). T.k.klossiChasen,1935—NBorneo(NEastKalimantan,E&CSabah,andpossiblyWSabahandBrunei. T.k.luteicollisLyon,1906—BangkaI,offESumatra. T.k.pidonisChasen,1940—KohPipidonI(=PhiPhiDon),offWMalayPeninsula. T.k.ravulusMiller,1903—islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(KohAdang&KohRawi). T.k.ravusMiller,1902—SThailand,NMalayPeninsula. T.k.rubeusMiller,1903—RiauArchipelago(BintanI). T.k.siantanicusChasen&Kloss,1928—AnambasArchipelago(SiantanI). T. k. subrufus Miller, 1903 — Lingga Archipelago (Lingga & Singkep Is). The range on the Asian mainland is poorly known and could occur as far north as China (S Yunnan). As stated in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of some areas of Borneo (W Sabah, Brunei & N Sarawak) and several other islands remains unclear. Descriptive notes. Head—body 37-56 cm, tail 6-9 cm; weight 1.5-2. 5 kg. Thisis a small chevrotain species that was recently split from 7. javanicus. It is separated from the larger 1. napu primarily by its smaller size, the number of throat stripes, the visibility of the nape line, and the lack of mottling of the upperparts. There is some degree of melanism in 7. kanchil specimens from small islands, leading to the development of extra dark, transverse lines, which makes the throat pattern hard to distinguish from that of 1. napu. The degree of erythrism (reddish pigmentation) and melanism is, however, less pronounced than in 7. napu. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. Tall forest in lowlands, amidst undergrowth on edges of heavy lowland forest. It has been suggested that 7. kanchil occurs primarily in hilly areas, but other sources stated that the species was absent from areas above 250 m in Sarawak, whereas 7. napu occurred much higher. This species also occurs in cultivated areas up to 600 m in elevation. The habitat of this species could be described as a mosaic ofriverine, seasonal swamp and dry undulating country, vegetated predominantly by legumes and dipterocarps, with stands of dense bamboo or palms for daytime resting. In Sabah, they also inhabit mangrove forest, and they can be quite common in monocultural tree plantations in a matrix of secondary forest stands. Even though the evidence is somewhat ambiguous,it appears that this species prefers disturbed forests to primary ones. A review of encounter rates in various parts of the species’ range suggested that the distribution of 7. kanchil is perhaps highly patchy and correlated to specific habitat features and microhabitats. What these features are remains unresolved, but their water requirements are important, as authors note commonness in riverine areas with surprising regularity. The habitat use of this species with respect to edge—interior areas shows startling heterogeneity, at least in non-Sundaic areas, but this cannot yet be explained; in particular, disentangling the contributions of intrinsic habitat suitability and the effects of hunting is difficult. Food and Feeding. The speciesis largely frugivorous, but also feeds on shoots, young leaves, and fallen fruits. Fruit mass of consumed fruits varied from 1 g to 5 g and seed mass from 0-01 g to 0-5 g. On Borneo, the species feeds on a range offruiting species, including Polyanthia sumatrana, Diospyros macrophylla, Endospermum peltatum, Quercus sp., Garcinia forbesi and G. parviflora, Litsea caulocarpa and L. orocola, Notaphoebe sp., Dialum imdum, Aglaia sp., Chisocheton sp., Dysoxylum sp., Lansium sp., Artocarpus dadah, Ficus spp., Dimocarpus longan, Paranephelium xestophyllum, and Microros antidesmifolia. Breeding. Males mark their territories and their females with an intermandibular scent gland located under the chin. They chase and fight one another for prolonged periods, slashing with the elongated canine teeth. These teeth are razor sharp and local hunters in Borneo report that sometimes males fight to the death. Mating occurs throughout the year in some areas. In Vietnam the species mates in November-December and gives birth in April-May. The species is polygynous. Females are almost continuously pregnant. Gestation has been estimated at 140-177 days, the mother produces 2-3 young per year, and fawns are kept hidden. Activity patterns. Diurnal to cathemeral. Movements, Home range and Social organization. A study of this species in the Malaysian state of Sabah suggested thatit is mostly solitary, with 93-9% of the observations being single animals and the remainder pairs or a female with one or two young. In apparent contrast with this statement, camera trap photos of the species often show two adult animals together. Further studies are needed to determine the social organization of the species and how this varies spatially as well temporally. Population densities on Borneo were estimated at 21-39 ind/km?, with density positively correlated with fruit mass, seed mass, and total fruit resources. The species does not appearto be territorial. The core areas of neighboring animals were completely separate among same-sex individuals, but overlapped widely among opposite-sex individuals. The results suggest that this species is mostly monogamous, although apparently males can also be polygamous. The core area of a paired female overlapped not only with the core area of the paired male, but also with that of another neighboring male. This suggests that males tolerate the presence of females in their core areas and that paired males do not control the movement of paired females into the home ranges of other males. Females establish new home ranges when giving birth. Home range size for females was estimated at 4-4 ha and for males 5-9 ha using the minimum convex polygon method, but the differ ence between males and females was not significant. Mean daily distance travelled for males was 519-1 m (+ 88-8 m), that for females 573-8 m (+ 219-7 m). In a Bornean study area, the density was negatively correlated with pioneer trees, grass, and herbs, suggesting that the species is negatively influenced by the effects of timber harvest, although, as pointed at above, this remains ambiguous. Data from Indochina, suggest that the species is quite tolerant of forest disturbance and may even be considered an edge species that benefits from disturbance. Further studies are needed to elucidate this issue. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and locally common, and at least in non-Sundaic areas persists in environments of very heavy forest degradation, fragmentation, and hunting. The presumed short generation length of the species (under five years) also influences assessment. Thus although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area. The IUCN review points out several major uncertainties in the conservation status assessment. Firstly, there are few modern records of Tragulus from both the Sundaic and non-Sundaic portions of the range that have been identified conclusively as to species. Secondly, the conflicting nature of the information available concerning the effects of hunting (harvest levels are locally very high) and habitat destruction makes it difficult to estimate population declines. Thirdly, there are strong indications that in its non-Sundaic range (i.e. Asian mainland) it is localized in occurrence, a pattern for which the reasons remain opaque, but which might be the result of hunting. And fourthly, the apparent restriction to lowland forest, at least in Borneo, suggests that with the rapidly dwindling lowland forests in this part ofits range, the species is losing habitat and its range might decrease and become fragmented. The species apparently has become extinct in Bangladesh due to high hunting and trapping pressure, although in many other areas it seems to survive despite local poaching and trapping. Bibliography. Caldecott (1988), Davison (1980), Duckworth (1997), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Endo (2004), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Kim et al. (2004), Liat (1973), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Matsubayashi et al. (2003, 2006), Medway (1978), Meijaard (2003), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2005), Miura & Idris (1999), Nolan et al. (1995), O'Brien et al. (2003), Payne et al. (1985)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 330-331, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

2. Yellow-striped Chevrotain Moschiola kathygre French: Chevrotain kathygre / German: Ceylon-Gelbstreifenkantschil / Spanish: Ciervo raton rayado Taxonomy. Moschiola kathygre Groves & Meijaard, 2005, eastern side of the Sri Lankan Wet Zone, some 30 km south-east of Kandy, Sri Lanka. This species is monotypic. Distribution. Wet Zone of Sri Lanka, from Sinharaja Forest Reserve through the lowlands around Colombo north to Katagamuwa on the border of the Dry Zone at 6° 24’ N, 81° 25’ E, and into the highlands at least to the Kandy District. Descriptive notes. Head-body 43-51 cm, tail 1-3 cm; weight unknown. The color of M. kathygre is much warmer, more ocherous brown than M. indica and M. meminna; spots and stripes are yellowed, not white; it has at least two tolerably complete longitudinal stripes along the flanks, with an elongated spot-row between them, and two spot-rows above them; the upperstripe curves round on the shoulder to be continuous with the anterior transverse stripes; it has two bold stripes over the haunch, and a third stripe farther back under the tail; the haunch is more densely spotted than M. meminna, and crown and nose are less darkened. On the undersideis a sharp differentiation between a white median strip and the pale ocher of the rest of underside; the lower halves of the hindlimbs are darker. The size of M. kathygre is small compared to M. indica, and hindlegs are relatively short. The following measurements are diagnostic cf. M. indica: tail length max. 2-6 cm, width across canine alveoli greater than 5 cm, least breadth across maxilla maximum 1: 42 cm, braincase breadth maximum 3-3 cm; and the following measurementis diagnostic cf. both M. indica and M. meminna: hindfoot length maximum 11-5 cm. Compared to both other species, rostrum breadth is less relative to skull length; compared to M. meminna, bullae are narrower, especially relative to interbullar distance. Dental formulais10/3,C1/1,P 3/3, M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. Forests and forested grasslands, with lakes and rivers of the Sri Lankan wet zone. It apparently also still occurs in urban scrub forest, freely enters rice paddies,is apparently more abundant in secondary forest than in primary, and occurs in rubber plantations and home gardens. All this strongly suggests significant ecological flexibility in this species. Food and Feeding. Nothing known. Breeding. Nothing known. Activity patterns. Nothing known. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The extent of occurrence of M. kathygreis probably about 15,000 km? within which it probably has an area of occupancy (in terms of available habitat) of about 1500 km ®. On this basis the species could potentially be listed as Vulnerable. However, even though the species is frequently hunted with firearms, there is no suspicion that this is a species prone to wild fluctuations in numbers, it occurs in more than ten locations, and there is no evidence for an ongoing decline in numbers. Changes in the wet zone forest cover cannot be used to infer a decline because of the species’ wide habitat adaptability. Bibliography. Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Groves & Meijaard (2005)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 329, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

8. Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotain Tragulus napu French: Chevrotain napu / German: Grofskantschil / Spanish: Ciervo raton grande Taxonomy. Moschus napu F. Cuvier, 1822, Sumatra, Indonesia. Restricted by Sody in 1931 to southern Sumatra. Greater Indo-Malayan Chevrotains are highly variable in coloration, especially the taxa from small islands. This has led to the description of a great number of species and subspecies. A taxonomic review in 2004 brought some clarity about the validity of the many described taxa. Still, many type specimens, especially of small island taxa, were not included in that review and the authors were unable to assess the validity ofall taxa. In addition to the subspecies below several other taxa have been described for which the taxonomic status remains unresolved. This includes nigrocinctus from Malacca Strait islands (Kundur and Karimun Besar = Great Karimon); bullitonus from Belitung Island (which might be a subspecies of 1. kanchil); amoenus from Musala Island; and several subspecies from island taxa west of Sumatra, including brevipes from Bangkaru Island, russulus and batuanus from Tanahbala and Tanahmasa islands, pinius from Pini Island. All these taxa require further study to determine their taxonomic status. Seven subspecies presently recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. T.n.napuF.Cuvier,1822—SMyanmar,Thai/MalayPeninsula,islandsoffWMalayPeninsula(Langkawi&Pangkor),Borneo,SSumatra,BangkaI,islandsoffBorneo(Laut&Serasan). T.n.bangue:Chasen&Kloss,1931—BanggiIandBalembanganI,offNBorneo. T.n.bunguranensisMiller,1901—NatunaIs(=Bunguran),oftWBorneo. T.n.neubronneriSody,1931—NSumatra. T.n.nmiasisLyon,1916—NiasI,offWSumatra. T.n.rufulusMiller,1900—TiomanI,offEMalayPeninsula,RiauandLinggaArchipelagos. T. n. terutus Thomas & Wroughton, 1909 — Terutau I, off W Malay Peninsula. The species was recently reconfirmed for Singapore. Maps that include Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos in the distribution range are based on the earlier assumption that 7. versicolor was a subspecies of 1. napu. Subsequent studies have indicated that 7. versicolor is a distinct species, and that the range of 1. napu therefore does not extend into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. The northern limit on the Thai-Malay peninsula is not well defined. Specimens of 1. napu have been collected from as far north as Bankachon in southern Myanmar (10° 08 ” N), but despite fairly intensive camera-trapping in Kui Buri National Park, Thailand (12° N), 7. napu has not been photographed there. At the northern margin ofits range, it is generally rare. It has been reported, for example, that during the flooding of the Chiew Larn Reservoir (Surat Thani Province; about 9° N, 98° 45’ E), only six 7. napu were rescued compared with 172 71. kanchil. This area is the transition zone from wetter evergreen forest to drier deciduous types, and it might be that 7° napu is not well adapted to the drier forest types towards the northern limit ofits range. There are unconfirmed reports of the species on Java, where it may have been confused with one of the two color morphs of 7. javanicus. As explained in the Taxonomy section, the subspecific status of the populations of several islands remains unclear. Descriptive notes. Head-body 42:5-68 cm, tail 8-5 cm, shoulder height 30-35 cm; weight 3-5—4-5 kg. 1. napu is one of the largest Asian chevrotains. The pelage is orangeybrown in color; the hindquarters are lightly mottled with black. The underparts and legs are paler. The underside of the chin is white, and there are a series of white markings on the neck. The head is triangular in shape, and the large black nose is naked. The eyes are very large, and the ears are medium-sized, lightly covered with black hair. The body is rounded, and the rear quarters are higher than the front. The legs are extremely thin and delicate, being about the diameter of a pencil. Compared to the partly sympatric 1. kanchil, skin patterns of 7. napu are more mottled and 7. napu has pale lines on the throat and neck, whereas 7. kanchilnormally has three strong white lines on the throat and has uniformly colored upperparts. There is, however, considerable variation within each species in the coloration and striping patterns (also see other Tragulus species accounts), especially on the many small islands where the species occur. In several instances it is nearly impossible to determine whether a taxon is more closely related to 7. napu or to T. kanchil. In fact, until an in-depth taxonomic review was recently conducted, 7! napu was sometimes considered to be a sibling species of 1. kanchil. The pelage coloration in 7. napu is more variable than in 7 kanchil, with varying degrees of melanism and erythrism. Specimens from the larger islands (Borneo and Sumatra) and the Asian mainland and Malay Peninsula are generally dull yellowish-brown, with a mottled appearance. On several islands, 7. napu typically has a red-brown color. Even the nape-stripe is red-brown, somewhat darker than the orange-red neck. The lines from the eye to nose are deep black, and the red-brown back is mixed with black. From studies of hair and skins and from information in the literature it appears that increased redness is the result of fewer all-black and black-tipped hairs in the coat and possibly also an actual increased redness in the hair pigment. The color pattern of the primitive type of 1. napu on the mainland can be summarized as follows: a mixed brown and black neck, the black concentrating along the nape to form an evident napestripe; and a normal throat pattern with a median white longitudinal stripe, on each side of which is a similar stripe, the three meeting in a broad white mass; the space between median and lateral stripes is brown, as in the side of the neck, or somewhat darker; a brown transverse band or collar separates the stripes from the white of the chest. The two lines of variation are toward predominance of yellowish-brown or toward predominance of black. This species was readily differentiated from members of the 1. javanicus / kanchil group by its larger size, relatively small auditory bullae and, in most specimens, the distinct coat coloration. The analysis of skull measurements suggested that within this species there are three geographical groups, none of which is distinct enough to be assigned to species level. Dental formula: 10/3, C1/1,P 3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. Primary and secondary evergreen rain forest. It has been suggested that the foot morphology of 7. napu indicates a preference for more swampy habitats than 7. javanicus / 1. kanchil. Another source, from Borneo, however, claims that 7. napu is a hill species, found at no great elevation but never on swamps, plains and less often on river banks than 7. kanchil. T. napu seems to be scarcer in logged forest than in primary forest, with an 86% decline in density being reported following timber harvest. Daily home range use also appears to be more extensive in secondary forest. The sensitivity to logging is probably a consequence of diet constraints that limit the species’ ability to compensate for the reduced abundance of selected fruits in disturbed forest by utilizing browsing. In twelve-year-old logged forest, fewer trees remained belonging to genera eaten by 7. napu. On Tioman Island, of the coast of the Malay Peninsula, densities increased away from human settlements probably in direct relationship to hunting pressure; also 83% of observations on this island were in primary forests and 17% in secondary forests or rubber estates. Food and Feeding. This species is mostly frugivorous, although few details on feeding are known. In captivity they eat most fruits and readily take to bananas, though their favorite food was mentioned to be the fruits and particularly the flowers of “Buah Simpoh” (presumably a Dillenia species). It has been asserted that 7. napu are prone to kill chickens, but no direct evidence for this was found. Breeding. The species is possibly polygynous; there is no distinct mating season and females give birth throughout the year in Peninsular Malaysia; one or rarely two young are born. The gestation period is 152-155 days. Weaning occurs at 2-3 months. The young reach sexual maturity at 4-5 months, and maximum life span in captivity is reported to be up to 14 years. 1. napu was observed to stamp with one or both hindfeet when slightly alarmed. Other individuals would or would not stamp in response. Both males and females mark objects with the intermandibular gland. Males mark much more frequently than females. Males often lick the urine of females; less frequently, females lick the urine of males. Males court both receptive and unreceptive females. Courting males mark the female on the back or rump with the intermandibular gland and emit a series of squeaks. Females have a postpartum estrus and return to estrus at approximately 14day intervals unless they become pregnant. Females of 7. napu have the potential to be pregnant throughout adult life, often with only 85-155 minutes passing between giving birth and becoming pregnant again. The young are born fully developed, and they are able to stand after 30 minutes. Mothers spend little time with infants. They emit a vocalization that sounds like the squeak of courting males. Both mothers and infants emit a higher-pitched vocalization. Intense agonistic behavior was seen only when strange individuals were introduced into established groups. Males fight by facing each other and biting each other on the ears, neck, and shoulders with their large upper canines. Fighting males usually hold the tail in a vertical position, exposing the white ventral surface, and may emit loud growls. If one male flees, the other pursues and attempts to bite him on the neck and body. Activity patterns. 7. napu is reported to be cathemeral (active day and night), but there are few data to support this. Movements, Home range and Social organization. The density of 7. napuin one Borneo site was positively correlated with large strangler fig trees (Ficus spp.) and negatively correlated with grass and herbs and vine tangle. In primary forest densities vary from 37-72 ind/km?®. On Tioman Island, densities ranged from 27-8 ind/km? to 312-5 ind/ km? The home range in primary forest is about 7 ha. Home range and core area size do not differ according to sex, but are determined by body size of the individuals. The species is mostly solitary, with a mean group size of 1-37 individuals. Recent observations indicate that the species escapes predators by hiding under water in forest streams. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List, because it remains widespread and at least locally common in the Sundaic region and, at least on Borneo, it appears that this species is resilient to hunting, although probably not to habitat degradation. Better data would allow a more confident assessment. Its wide altitudinal tolerance (presumed to be up to 1000 m above sea level) means that it has large populations above the elevation where very rapid forest loss is occurring. The presumed short generation length of the species, which is likely underfive years, also influences assessment, because it means that the species could quickly recover from local declines. Thus, although there may be or may have been drastic local reductions, these have probably not been synchronous over a large enough area to threaten its survival. Bibliography. Azlan & Engkamat (2006), Chasen (1940), Chua et al. (2009), Dobroruka (1972), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth (1994, 1997), Heydon (1994), Heydon & Bulloh (1997), Matsubayashi & Sukor (2005), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Meijaard et al. (2010), Miura & Idris (1999), Nakhasathien (1989), Payne et al. (1985), Ralls et al. (1975), Smit-van Dort (1989), Timmins et al. (2008), Yasuma (1994, 1996), Yasuma & Andau (2000)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 332-333, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

9. Balabac Chevrotain Tragulus nigricans French: Chevrotain de Balabac / German: Balabac-Kantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratén de Balabac Other common names: Pilandok Taxonomy. Tragulus nigricans Thomas, 1892, Balabac, Philippines. This species was resurrected as a distinct species in 2004 based on skull morphology. 1. nigricans was originally allied with 1" napu due to similarities in body size and markings. Skull measurements demonstrate clear differentiation between T. nigricans, 1. napu, and 1. kanchil, the species from nearby Borneo and surrounding small islands. 7. nigricans is a restricted area species endemic to the Philippines, and there are no subspecies. It has been suggested that the chevrotain population of Pulau Banggi (Malaysia), which lies midway between Balabac and the Bornean mainland, and which was almost certainly (and perhaps repeatedly) connected to both by former (late Pleistocene) land bridges, might belong to this species. Recent morphometric study of specimens from Pulau Banggi indicates its distinctiveness from both 7. napu and 1. nigricans, suggesting that morphometrically the Pulau Banggi population is more closely related to 7. kanchil. Throat patterns and coloration of the upperparts, however, suggests a napurelated taxon, and for now the subspecies T. napu banguei is retained for the Banggi population. Monotypic. Distribution. Balabac, Ramos, and Bugsuk Is, Palawan region, Phillipines. In the late 1990s, a small stock of eight Balabac Chevrotains escaped from their enclosures on Calauit Island, a small island off the coast of Busuanga Island, north of Palawan, where the species had been maintained and bred since 1982. These animals were reported to have increased to at least 21 free-living individuals by 2006. Apparently the species was also introduced to the larger island of Palawan. No recent records confirm that it is still extant there, although unconfirmed reports suggest that it may survive in southern Palawan. Descriptive notes. Head-body 40-47. 5 cm, tail 6.5-8. 5 cm, shoulder height 18 cm; weight unknown. The Balabac Chevrotain is very small in stature, and smaller than its apparent close relative 71. napu from neighboring Borneo. T. nigricans is one of the most darkly-colored chevrotains, with an overall dark brown coat. The upperparts are broadly washed with black, and the neck is mixed black and fulvous. Each individual hair has sections of different colors. The base is generally pale, ranging from white to ashy brown, the mid-section is tawny, orange, or brown, and there is a long black tip. The abdominal region is generally orange-brown in color. The lower abdomen, groin, and insides of the thighs are white. The hindlegs have a white stripe on the front that extends from the upper thigh to the tarsal joint; the rest of the leg is fulvous in color. The inner surfaces of the front legs are white, and this coloration extends across the chest in between the front legs as a whitish patch. The tail is dark brown with a white tip. The most striking markings of the Balabac Chevrotain are on the throat, with three narrow white stripes beginning from a white patch under the chin and extending down towards the chest. In contrast to these white stripes, the rest of the throat is jet black; in some specimens the black coloration even overtakes and obscures the stripes. Towards the chest, these black and white markings disappear into a broad brown band that crosses the lower throat. The head itself is generally darker in color than the rest of the body. Broad rufous or fulvous eyebrow stripes extend from the anterior corners of the eyes to the base of ears. The bridge of the nose and forehead are dark brown, becoming increasingly infused with black towards the crown of the head. The sides of the head are more fulvous. A naked glandular patch on underside of the jaw is bordered with white, which runs into the white patch at the top of the throat. Dental formula is 10/3,C1/1,P3/3,M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. 7. nigricans inhabits both primary and secondary forests as well as shrubland on Balabac Island, using both large blocks of forest and smaller fragments. It may frequent mangroves and more open areas to forage. Dense vegetation within the forest interior provides shelter for this species during the daytime. Food and Feeding. It is reported that 7. nigricans feeds mostly on leaves, which would set it aside from most other chevrotain species, which are primarily frugivorous. One photograph of a captive animal shows it feeding on grass-like leaves, which would confirm the above observation. Breeding. There is apparently a distinct breeding season, but it is unclear when this occurs and whether it coincides with the distinct dry and wet seasons in the species’ range. Litter size is reportedly almost always one, rarely two. Activity patterns. Reported to be nocturnal. These chevrotains leave their shaded resting spots at night, entering into clearings to feed. Most encounters between humans and the Balabac Chevrotain occur along roads at night, when their eye shine is frequently observed from vehicles. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known. Status and Conservation. Classified as Endangered on The IUCN Red List, and is probably the most range-restricted of all chevrotain species. The species is subject to poaching for food, using guns or snares, and there is minor domestic trade in live animals for local zoos and private collectors. The species is also affected by habitat loss due to conversion of former habitat to coconut plantations and other agriculture. Bibliography. Allen & White (1910), Huffman (2009), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Oliver (1992), Oliver et al. (2008), Rabor (1977), Rico & Oliver (2008), Sanborn (1952), Timm & Birney (1980)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 333, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tragulidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 320-334, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721279

Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (2011): Tragulidae. In: Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions: 320-334, ISBN: 978-84-96553-77-4, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5721279

6. Northern Chevrotain Tragulus williamsoni French: Chevrotain de Williamson / German: Thailand Kantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratén de Tailandia Taxonomy. Tragulus williamsoni Kloss, 1916, Meh Lem, Thailand. The recent reallocation of 1. williamsoni to species level was based on one specimen from northern Thailand, because the skull dimensions exceeded those of any other T. kanchitlike chevrotains from the Asian mainland. Recently, two additional specimens from Mengla, Yunnan, China have been identified that appear to support the species-level designation of this taxon. This, however, requires further careful study, because even though the two Chinese skulls are similar in size to the specimen from northern Thailand, verification of the measurements is still required. The taxonomic uncertainty of 71. williamsoni is compounded by the lack of available specimens of chevrotains from close to the type locality of T. williamson: with which to test for conspecificity with 7. kanchil and, if the taxon is validated, to determine whetherit is sympatric or parapatric with 7. kanchil. More material is needed for both 7. williamsoni and 1. kanchil, if it occurs there, from the northern parts of Thailand, adjacent southern China, and possibly northern Laos as well as northern Myanmar, to make an informed judgment. Monotypic. Distribution. Thailand and southern China, mainly the Sanchahe part of the Mengman region and the Darongshu of the Longmen region, both in S. Yunnan, but possibly more widespread with potential presence in Laos, Vietnam, and Myanmar. Descriptive notes. No measurements available. The type specimen of this species was described as larger than other 7. kanchil specimens from the Asian mainland, but with color patterns similar to 7. k. affinis. Photos of this type specimen show uniformly colored pale brown upperparts, with a barely visible darker nape streak; the species was described as being like 7. k. affinis but larger and with the upperparts deeper ochraceous and only moderately annulated with brown. Throat patterns are as in 7 k. affinis, with clearly defined white chin and neck stripes and a reddish-brown transverse throat band that separates the white neck and chin from the white chest (unlike in 7 versicolor, in which this dark band is discontinuous, and the white neck and chin and white chest thus connected). Dental formulais10/3; C1/1;P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. A recent study in Yunnan showed that the species prefers valleys along banks of rivers or streams in low altitude, where they tend to use middle and lower slopes with the favorite fruit trees Ficus hirtal, Baccaurea samiflora, Alpinia kwangsiensis, and Phrynium capitatum. These plants occur along banks ofrivers or streams. Chevrotain habitat use was mostly affected by tall tree coverage, shrub coverage, and herb coverage, and distance to water. Food and Feeding. Based on its habitat use and tree preferences in Yunnan, the diet of T. williamsoni appears to contain significant amounts offruit. Breeding. Nothing known. Activity patterns. Nothing known. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known. Status and Conservation. Classified as Data Deficient on The IUCN Red List, The species’ status cannot be assessed due to taxonomic uncertainty and a paucity of data on extent of occurrence, threats, habitat preferences and altitudinal range. Hunting is heavy in the species’ likely range and habitat perturbation is increasing there. The lack of understanding of the population-level effects on the species rule out inferential application of decline-based criteria. On the IUCN assessmentit is suggested that even modest additional information would allow categorization of the species, and thatit would likely warrant either Near Threatened or one of the threatened categories. Bibliography. Aidong Luo et al. (1999), Cao Mingl et al. (2010), Kloss (1916, 1918), Meijaard & Groves (20044, 2004b), Shi Liming & Chen Yuze (1989), Timmins et al. (2008)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 331, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

1. White-spotted Chevrotain Moschiola meminna French: Chevrotain meminna / German: Ceylon-Kantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratén manchado Taxonomy. Moschus meminna Erxleben, 1777. Type locality selected by Groves & Meijaard in 2005 as Wariyapola, 7° 37’ N, 80° 13’ E, North Central Province, Sri Lanka. This species is monotypic. Distribution. Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. Descriptive notes. Head-body 55-60 cm, tail 2-5 cm; adult weight 2-45 kg. Color and pattern much as in M. indica, but upper row ofspots does not extensively fuse into a continuousstripe on the shoulder. Size small, hindlegs relatively long. The following are diagnostic cf. M. indica: zygomatic breadth less than 5 cm, occipital height (from basion) less than 2-75 cm, width across canine alveoli less than 1-5 cm, braincase breadth less than 3-3 cm; and the following is diagnostic cf. M. kathygre. hindfoot greater than 12 cm. Habitat. There is little information specific to the species’ habitat other than that this chevrotain lives in deciduous vegetation formations. It is basically a forest species, being found commonly in all forest types within the dry zone, but also in coconut plantations and home gardens. It is seldom far from water. A report of Sri Lanka chevrotain densities of around 0-58 ind/km? is likely to concern the Dry Zone species, but the original source has not been traced and without clarification of the underlying methodology and assumptions leading to the estimate,its reliability is unknown. Food and Feeding. Nothing known. Breeding. Nothing known. One captive specimen lived 14-5 years. Activity patterns. Little known but presumably similar to M. indica, i.e. mostly crepuscular and nocturnal. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known. Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The justification for this listing is that a number of well-secured protected areas within the Dry Zone support chevrotains. Also, the effects of forest degradation and fragmentation on this chevrotain are probably not severe, given its ability to survive in home gardens and coconut plantations. Sri Lankan chevrotains are commonly hunted with firearms for their meat in areas where conservation management was suspended during the civil war, but it seems unlikely that this occurs at sufficient levels to restrain population numbers within reasonably-sized blocks of remaining habitat. In the Dry Zone they remain fairly common in forests even outside protected areas, despite widespread hunting. Hunting techniques that could be dangerous for chevrotains include a lot of trap guns in the forest and the use oflive electric wires, taken off posts, dragged through the forest, and set in rice paddies. Bibliography. Dubost (2001), Duckworth & Timmins (2008), Eisenberg & Lockhart (1972), Groves & Meijaard (2005), Santiapillai & Wijeyamohan (2003)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on page 329, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

7. Javan Chevrotain Tragulus javanicus French: Chevrotain de Java / German: Java-Kantschil / Spanish: Ciervo ratén de Java Taxonomy. Cervus javanicus Osbeck, 1765, Udjung Kulon Peninsula, Java, Indonesia. Craniometrical analysis indicates that there may be two distinct chevrotain taxa on Java. The data are, however, inconclusive. Further research, particularly on skin patterns ofJavan Chevrotain, is required. None of the specimens originally used to describe two subspecies, the gray-necked form pelandoc (from the north coast of West Java Province) and the red-necked form focalinus (from the western part ofJava and to the southern coast), were included in a recent taxonomic review of the genus. An earlier review found all kinds of forms that were intermediate between the two supposed Javan subspecies and concluded that there was probably only one taxon on Java. Monotypic. Distribution. Java. Several biogeographic reviews failed to list the genus for Bali, an island directly east of Java with strong biogeographic affinities to the latter. A sighting was, however, reported from Bali Barat National Park, in a birdwatching trip report. Given the live-animal trade of this species on Java, further records are needed to confirm whether or not there is a native population of the genus on Bali. If there is, biogeographic considerations suggest it would be most closely related to the Javan population and quite probably conspecific. Descriptive notes. Head-body 50-53 cm,tail 4-6 cm; weight 1.7-2. 1 kg. Compared to 1. kanchil, T: javanicus is distinguished by its narrow auditory bullae, narrow braincase, and longer and higher mandibles. Compared with 7. kanchil from nearby Sumatra, the rostrum is shorter and the auditory bullae are narrower. Two different taxa of chevrotain have been described from Java, a gray-necked form and a red-necked form. The gray-necked form was distinguished from all other 7. javanicuslike chevrotains by the great width and distinctness of the tawny superciliary stripes and by the grizzled gray neck, which is strikingly contrasted with the tawny body and head; in addition, the nape stripe is absent, although the dark crown sometimesslightly extends onto the nape. The red-necked form, described on the basis of five specimens in the Zoological Museum of the Humboldt University in Berlin, has an orange-brown ground color,slightly grizzled with black. All five specimens had a clear, almost black, nape stripe. The cheeks and the sides of the neck are orange-buff, as opposed to the gray in the gray-necked form. This species was described as having a remarkably long tongue, which “it brings with ease to behind its ears,” but presumably this is a generic rather than species-specific characteristic. Dental formulais 10/3; C1/1; P 3/3; M 3/3 (x2)= 34. Habitat. Preferred habitat of the Javan Chevrotain includes evergreen and semi-evergreen rainforest. The species has been reported in the drier semi-deciduous forests of eastern Java, butit seems to be rarer there than in the wetter forests of central and west Java. One habitat-use study suggested that 7. javanicus uses dense bushes and stands of Salacca zalacca palms during the day. It generally remains not far from rivers. This suggests that chevrotains there might be an “edge” species, apparently preferring areas with thick understory vegetation, such as that along riverbanks. This would not be unusual within the genus (see other Tragulus accounts). The species occurs from sea level to about 1600 m above sea level in the mountains. Food and Feeding. In captivity Javan Chevrotains refuse grass as fodder and do not feed on any grasses that grow in their cages. Instead they are kept on banana peels, jackfruit, and the left-overs of rambutan and mangosteen fruits. In captivity, they are partial to leaves of a number of Acalypha (Euphorbiaceae) species, including A. marginata and A. wilkesiana, as well as leaves of Laeucaena glauca, Ipomoea batatas, I. reptans, and Manihot utilissima. In the wild, the species reportedly feeds on fallen fruit, including wild figs (Ficus spp.), and the leaves and buds of a variety of plants. Breeding. Males ofthis species are reported to produce unusual screams during the mating season. In captivity they have been observed to fight to the death. With bared teeth (lips withdrawn) males circled each other, and by approaching from the side, tried to get underneath the opponentto stab or slice with their canines. As a result, the belly of one victim was ripped open, causing its entrails to spill. The female had calmly observed the fight, lying down with the front legs folded underneath her body; mating with the winning male took place soon after. Females in captivity developed bold patches, sometimes chafed and bloody, after mating, apparently caused by the sharp hooves of the male during copulation. Gestation lasts several months, after which one young is born, “the size of a rat”, dark brown, with a very small head and thin legs. Young can run and jump soon after birth, and suckle only occasionally, only at night and very briefly. The young soon start eating the same leaves and fruits as older animals. Neither male nor female parent made any apparent effort to protect their young. A specimen of 7. javanicus successfully bred with a chevrotain from Bangka Island (presumably 7 kanchil luteicollis) and produced a young with intermediate characteristics. Activity patterns. Observations in captivity suggest that the species is nocturnal, and during the day rests in a quiet, cool, shaded spot. It becomes active around 16:00 h or 17:00 h in the afternoon. Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nothing known. Status and Conservation. The account of 7. javanicus on The IUCN Red List states that the speciesis classified as Data Deficient, partly reflecting the lack of clarity over how many species of chevrotain occur onJava and therefore how much of the available information about the genus refers to 1. javanicus. The authors mention that there are fair indications of a decline, perhaps a major one, and a category such as Vulnerable is quite likely to be applicable. The species is hunted for meat and is also often sold as a pet, for example in markets in West Java. In the 1920s it was reported that the species was commonly trapped using snares, but no recent information on this is available. Dedicated field investigations (throughoutJava) ofstatus are urgently warranted, and the Red List status of the species should be reviewed regularly in light of current uncertainty and concerns. Bibliography. Dakkus (1932), Dobroruka (1967), Doctors van Leeuwen (1921), van Dort (1986, 1988), Duckworth et al. (2008), Farida (2003), Groves & Meijaard (2005), Hoogerwerf (1970), Meijaard & Groves (2004a, 2004b), Supraptomo (1953), van der Vegte (1938)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2011, Tragulidae, pp. 320-334 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 2 Hoofed Mammals, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 331-332, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5721279

Beim Hausrind werden nach Infektion mit dem Bovinen Virusdiarrhoe Virus (BVDV) verschiedenste Verlaufsformen beobachtet, von subklinischen Infektionen bis hin zu akuten Krankheitsverläufe mit Todesfolge. Im Mittelpunkt steht jedoch die Infektion empfänglicher, tragender Rinder, die zur Fruchtresorption, zum Abort, zu kongenitalen Defekten oder zur Geburt persistent infizierter (PI) Tiere führt. Kernproblem der persistierenden Infektion ist, dass die virämischen Tiere klinisch zunächst meist gesund erscheinen, den Erreger aber lebenslang und in großen Mengen ausscheiden. Nach Superinfektion von PI Tieren mit dem zytopathogenen (zp) Biotyp des BVDV kann die sporadisch zu beobachtende, fatale Mucosal Disease (MD) ausgelöst werden. Der serologische Nachweis sowie Isolierung von BVDV gelang bei einer Vielzahlunterschiedlicher Arten von freilebenden wie in menschlicher Obhut gehaltenen exotischen Wiederkäuern. Hinsichtlich der MD gibt es zwar einige klinische Beschreibungen, jedoch keine bestätigten Nachweise. Die Fragestellung des experimentellen Teils der vorliegenden Arbeit war deshalb, ob ein persistent mit nicht zytopathogenem (nzp) BVDV infizierter Kleinkantschil nach Superinfektion mit einem zp BVDV an MD erkranken würde. Bei dem Versuchstier handelte es sich um einen vierjährigen, männlichen Kleinkantschil aus der Zuchtgruppe des Artis Royal Zoos, Amsterdam, in der in 2002/2003 acht von elf Individuen als PI diagnostiziert wurden; alle PI Tiere waren Nachkommen desselben Muttertieres. Das persistierende Virus wurde als ein BVDV-1f charakterisiert. Abgesehen von der Beschreibung persistierender Infektion in einer freilebenden Elenantilope (Tautragus oryx), handelte es sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt um den ersten Nachweis persistierender Infektion und vertikaler Transmission von BVDV bei einem exotischen Wiederkäuer, der die außerordentliche Gelegenheit bot, das Vorkommen der MD bei einem nicht- domestizierten Wiederkäuer experimentell zu untersuchen. Der Versuch umfasste eine mehrmals täglich stattfindende adspektorische Untersuchung sowie eine wöchentliche Inhalationsnarkose, während der der Kleinkantschil eingehend untersucht und Blut-, Nasensekret-, Speichel- und Kotproben sowie zweimalig Ejakulat gewonnen wurden. Am Tag 85 nach Beginn der Beobachtung erfolgte die experimentelle Infektion des PI Tieres mit dem aus Rehen isolierten und als BVDV-1c/1d identifizierten, zp BVDV SH9/11. Bis 125 Tage post infectionem (p.i.) konnten keine klinischen Symptome einer MD beobachtet werden. Das inokulierte zp BVDV wurde, neben der kontinuierlichen Ausscheidung des persistierenden nzp BVDV, erstmals am Tag 29 p.i. in Leukozyten und Kot nachgewiesen. An den Tagen 70, 105, 112 sowie 125 p.i. konnte es im Speichel detektiert werden, am Tag 84 p.i. im Nasensekret. Während keine der vor experimenteller Infektion gewonnenen Blutproben neutralisierende Eigenschaften gegenüber den im Virusneutralisationstest eingesetzten BVDV-Stämmen besaß, erwiesen sich die an denTagen 35 und 42 p.i. entnommenen Proben als positiv gegenüber dem zur experimentellen Infektion eingesetzten Stamm SH9/11. Aufgrund einer hochgradigen, abszedierenden Periodontitis und Ostitis musste der Kleinkantschil 125 Tage p.i. euthanasiert werden. Auch während der postmortalen Untersuchung wurden weder makroskopisch noch mikroskopisch Läsionen gesehen wie sie in Anlehnung an die MD bei Hausrindern charakteristisch gewesen wären. Mittels spezifischer RT-PCR konnte die RNA des nzp BVDV in allen untersuchten Organen des Respirations-, Verdauungs- und Urogenitaltraktes, des Endokriniums, des ZNS, in der Haut, lymphatischen Organen, Muskulatur sowie Strukturen des Auges detektiert werden, während das inokulierte zp BVDV allein in Ohrspeicheldrüse, Pansen, Labmagen, Niere sowie im Ln. cervicalis superficialis des Kleinkantschils zu finden war. Via Immunhistochemie zeigte sich, dass das Verteilungsmuster innerhalb eines Organs den Beschreibungen der BVDV-Antigenverteilung bei persistierenden Infektionen von Hausrindern entsprach. Zusammengefasst formuliert: nach Superinfektion eines PI Kleinkantschils mit einem partiell homologen zp BVDV- Isolat konnten weder klinisch noch pathomorphologisch Veränderungen einer MD beobachtet werden, jedoch kam es trotz Serokonversion auch nicht zur vollständigen Eliminierung des inokulierten zp BVDV. Somit kann die Möglichkeit eines späteren, über den Euthanasiezeitpunkt hinwegreichenden, Ausbruchs von „lateonset“ MD, wie er für das Hausrind beschrieben ist, nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Das Ausbleiben einer MD könnte jedoch auch Folge einer reduzierten Empfänglichkeit von Kleinkantschilen für BVDV sein. (Haus-) Rind und Schaf, für die MD bzw. MD-ähnliche Syndrome beschrieben sind, gehören taxonomisch zur Unterordnung der Pecora, während Kleinkantschile zu der phylogenetisch sehr alten Unterordnung der Tragulina gezählt werden. Möglicherweise bedingt eine im Vergleich zu den Bovinae oder Bovidae variierende zelluläre Disposition eine reduzierte Empfänglichkeit der Tragulidae, die persistierende Infektionen und damit den Status eines Übertragers von BVDV, ermöglicht, aber das Auftreten akuter Verlaufsformen und der MD verhindert. Weiterhin wurde untersucht, ob die kursierende BVDV- Infektion einen Einfluss auf die abnehmende Populationsgröße von Kleinkantschilen in europäischen Zoos gehabt haben könnte. Durch das Studium von Zuchtbuch und veterinärmedizinischen Archivbefunden wurden Hinweise gefunden, die dem BVDV möglicherweise eine Rolle als prädisponierender Faktor für Misch- und Koinfektionen sowie bei der vergleichsweise hohen Mortalitätsrate unter Neonaten bei Kleinkantschilen zukommen lassen. Die vorliegende Arbeit illustriert die Bedeutung, die BVDV auch bei in menschlicher Obhut gehaltenen exotischen Wiederkäuern haben kann. Auch wenn das Risiko einer direkten Infektion anderer Paarhufer durch Kleinkantschile sehr gering ist, ermöglicht die Infrastruktur vieler Zoos doch eine indirekte Verschleppung des BVDV, die zur Infektion anderer empfänglicher Spezies führen könnte. Es empfiehlt sich daher, innerhalb eines Zoos auf eine strikte Hygiene zu achten und alle Neuzugänge, die potenziell für BVDV empfänglich sind, im Rahmen der Quarantäne auch einer Screeninguntersuchung auf BVDV zu unterziehen., Infections of cattle with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) can result in a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, from subclinical infections to fatal disease. Infection of susceptible pregnant cattle can result in early embryonic death, abortion, congenital defects or birth of a persistently infected (PI) calf. An initially normal clinical appearance associated with lifelong shedding of large amounts of virus particles is the hallmark of PI animals. When superinfected with a cytopathogenic (cp) strain of BVDV, PI cattle will succumb to Mucosal Disease (MD). Evidence for BVDV infections in free-ranging or captive wild ruminants is shown by multiple serologic surveys and virus isolations. Disease entities that resemble MD in cattle have been described in different ruminant species, but they all lack virologic confirmation. Therefore, the major objective of the present study was to find out whether a PI exotic ruminant, a 4-yearold, male Lesser Mousedeer (Tragulus spp.) would develop clinical signs of MD following experimental superinfection with a cp strain of BVDV. The experimental animal was born in a collection of eleven individuals at Artis Royal Zoo, Amsterdam, where in 2002/3003, eight of these clinically healthy mousedeer were found to be PI. All BVDV positive animals were born to the same dam or to her offspring, the pestivirus isolated was closely related to BVDV-1f. Apart from a single PI free-living eland (Taurotragus oryx), this was the first description of persistent infection and vertical transmission in a non-domestic ruminant species at that time. The experimental schedule included daily clinical observations and weekly samplings of blood, nasal swabs, saliva and faeces under general anaesthesia. After an observational period of eighty-five days the PI animal was inoculated intranasally with 105.5 TCID50/ml of the cp BVDV strain SH9/11. SH9/11 was formerly isolated from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), classified as a BVDV- 1c/-1d and antigenically partially matching the endogenous strain. Until 125 days post superinfection no MD-like clinical symptoms were observed. However, regardless of nearly continuous shedding of the persistent ncp BVDV in body secretions and excretions, the cp BVDV strain was detected in isolated leukocytes on day 29 following superinfection, in the animal’s faeces on days 29 and 35, in its nasal fluid on day 84 and in its saliva on days 70, 105, 112 and 125 after superinfection. Ejaculates, obtained by electroejaculation on days 7 and 125 following superinfection, were found positive for ncp BVDV. Whereas all blood samples taken before challenge reacted negatively in the virus neutralisation tests, neutralising antibodies against the inoculated cp BVDV strain were detected on days 35 and 42 following superinfection. On day 125 post superinfection the study had to be aborted unforeseeingly, as the experimental animal had to be euthanised due to a severe, purulent periodontitis and osteitis. At postmortem neither macroscopic nor histologic MD-like lesions were noted. Specific RTPCR detected the ncp BVDV strain in all tested organs of respiratory and digestive tract, urogenital and central nervous system, endocrinium, skin, lymphatic tissues, skeletal muscles and eye, whereas the cp superinfecting strain was found only in the salivary gland, rumen, abomasum, kidney and superficial prescapular lymph node. Via immunohistochemistry it was shown that the pattern of BVDV antigen within a tissue was consistent with that described for PI cattle earlier. In conclusion, following superinfection with an antigenically partially matching BVDV strain the PI Lesser Mousedeer did not develop clinical signs or pathomorphologic lesions consistent with MD. Although low levels of specific antibodies against the superinfecting BVDV strain were detected, the experimental animal was not able to completely eliminate the superinfecting cp strain; thus, the occurence of a late onset MD as demonstrated for cattle, cannot be excluded. On the other hand, results may also suggest a different course of BVDV infection in Lesser Mousedeer compared to cattle, as mousedeer might exhibit a dissimilar susceptibility towards the infectious agent. Considering the taxonomy of even-toed ungulates - while cattle and sheep, where MD respectively MD-like symptoms have been reported, are grouped within the infraorder Pecora of the suborder ruminantia, Lesser Mousedeer belong to the ancient infraorder Tragulinae. Its single family Tragulidae is said to be the phylogenetically earliest diverged taxon of ruminants, which might be a reason for a dissimilar cellular disposition of this species towards BVDV, facilitating persistent infection, thus a carrier status, and serologic response but preventing any BVDV-associated disease or development of MD. A second objective of the present study was to evaluate whether the circulating BVDVinfection had an influence on the population decline of captive Lesser Mousedeer in European zoos. Analysing studbook and archived veterinary data could not exclude that BVDV may has predisposed individuals for mixed or secondary infections and may has played a role in the relatively high neonate mortality. The presented study illustrates the importance of BVDV infections in captive wild artiodactyls. It is questionable, whether mousedeer will transmit BVDV directly to other zoo artiodactyls, but often the infrastructure of a zoological garden will allow indirect transmission to other susceptible species, some of which could possibly develop overt disease. A strict policy of hygiene, quarantine and screening tests including BVDV should be applied.