Search

Purpose: The study validated variables corresponding to lactate threshold (LT) in swimming. Speed (sLT), blood lactate concentration (BLLT), oxygen uptake (VO2LT), and heart rate (HRLT) corresponding to LT were calculated by 2 different incremental protocols and validated in comparison with maximal lactate steady state (MLSS). Methods: Ten competitive swimmers performed a 7 × 200-m front-crawl incremental "step test" with 2 protocols: (1) with 30-second rests between repetitions (short-rest incremental protocols) and (2) on a 5-minute cycle (swim + rest time, long-rest incremental protocols). Five methods were used for the assessment of sLT and corresponding BLLT, VO2LT, and HRLT: intersection of 2 lines, Dmax, modified Dmax, visual inspection, and intersection of combined linear and exponential regression lines. Subsequently, swimmers performed two to three 30-minute continuous efforts to identify speed (sMLSS) and physiological parameters corresponding to MLSS. Results: Both protocols resulted in similar sLT and corresponding physiological variables (P >.05). Bland–Altman plots showed agreement between protocols (sLT, bias: −0.017 [0.002] m·s−1; BLLT, bias: 0.0 [0.5] mmol·L−1; VO2LT, bias: −0.1 [2.2] mL·kg−1·min−1; HRLT. bias: −2 [8] beats·min−1). However, sLT calculated by modified Dmax using short rest was higher compared with speed at MLSS (1.346 [0.076] vs 1.300 [0.101] m·s−1; P <.05). Conclusions: Calculated sLT, BLLT, VO2LT, and HRLT using all other methods in short-rest and long-rest incremental protocols were no different compared with MLSS (P >.05). Both 7 × 200-m protocols are valid for determination of sLT and corresponding physiological parameters, but the modified Dmax method may overestimate sLT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine nocturnal sleep patterns, napping behaviors, and subjective wellness responses of elite water polo players within an in-season week and to identify whether sleeping patterns differ between men and women. Methods: Sleep characteristics of 10 male and 17 female professional water polo players were objectively assessed during 1 week of the in-season period, including 5 training days, 1 match day, and 1 day of rest. Internal load (rating of perceived exertion × duration of training or match) was assessed 30 minutes posttraining or postmatch, and the total quality of recovery was recorded every morning. A series of multilevel models were used to analyze the data. Results: Time in bed and wake-up time were earlier on both training (P <.001) and rest days (P <.001) than on the day of the match. Internal workload did not predict any of the players' sleeping patterns. Midday naps predicted less time in bed (P =.03) and likely less sleep time (P =.08). The total quality of recovery was predicted only by the total sleep time (P <.01). Women exhibited higher sleep efficiency (P <.001), less waking after sleep onset (P =.01), and a lower number of awakenings (P =.02) than men. Conclusions: The current results indicate that the nocturnal sleep patterns of elite water polo players are not associated with internal load and that women display better nocturnal sleep quality compared with men. As long naps interfere with nocturnal sleep, and total nocturnal sleep time predicts total quality of recovery, we suggest that athletes follow hygiene sleep strategies to facilitate adequate nocturnal sleep and next-day recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Interval-training sets may be applied in a different sequence within a swimming training session. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different set sequences on performance and physiological responses in a training session. Methods: Twelve highly trained male swimmers performed 4 sessions in randomized order. Each session included a different combination of 2 training sets: set A–set C, set C–set A, set B–set C, or set C–set B. Set A consisted of 8 × 200 m at speed corresponding to lactate threshold (30-s recovery), set B included 8 × 100 m at maximum aerobic speed (30-s recovery), and set C included 4 × 50-m all-out swimming (2-min recovery). Performance and physiological responses (lactate concentration, pH, base excess, bicarbonate, heart rate, and heart-rate variability) were measured. Results: Performance in each set was similar between sessions irrespective of set sequence. Blood lactate, heart rate, and acid–base responses during set C were similar in all sessions, but blood lactate was higher in sets A and B during C–A and C–B sessions (P =.01). The overall blood lactate and acid–base response was higher in C–A and C–B sessions compared with A–C and B–C sessions, respectively (P =.01). Heart-rate variability in each set, separately as well as the overall session effect, did not differ and was thus independent to the set sequence applied. Conclusions: Training sessions including all-out swimming as a first set increase the magnitude of metabolic responses to the subsequent aerobic-dominated training set. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to compare changes in swimmers' performance, biomechanical variables, and strength asymmetries within two successive training years. Eight competitive age-group swimmers (four males and four females; age: 14.8 ± 1.3 years) were tested before and after the same 12-week mesocycle period within two successive years (Year-1, Year-2). The swimmers were timed in 50, 200, and 400 m, and the stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), and stroke index (SI) were calculated. SI was calculated by the product of SL with swimming speed. Dryland shoulder isometric strength (ISO), hand grip isometric strength test (HG), and in-water maximum 30 s tethered swimming force (TF) were evaluated. The asymmetry index was calculated using ISO, HG, and TF tests as [(Fd − Fnd)/0.5 × (Fd + Fnd)] × 100, where Fd is strength in the dominant hand and Fnd is strength in the non-dominant hand. Performance time improved in 200 and 400 m, while the asymmetry indices calculated by the ISO, HG, and TF tests were similar after 12 weeks of training in both Year-1 and Year-2 (p = 0.01). Changes (Δ) in HG strength asymmetries correlated with Δ in 200 and 400 m in Year-2 (r = 0.78–0.87, p = 0.01). The asymmetry index does not change after two successive years of training but may be connected to performance changes in 200 and 400 m front crawl. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate whether sleeping activity, hormonal responses, and wellness are altered in elite water polo players during their preparation toward the Tokyo Olympics. Methods: Eight elite-level water polo players participated in 3 consecutive training phases: (1) before the commencement of a residential-based conditioning camp (PRE-CAMP; 3 d), (2) residential-based conditioning camp (5 d), and (3) a congested period of training and competition (POST-CAMP; 8 d). Nocturnal sleep was monitored for 14 consecutive days in PRE-CAMP (2 d), CAMP (5 d), and POST-CAMP (7 d). Postawakening salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin-A, and subjective wellness were measured during PRE-CAMP, CAMP, and POST-CAMP, and internal training/match load (ITL) was calculated daily. The averaged values for dependent variables were compared among training phases and analyzed using linear mixed models. Results: At CAMP compared with PRE-CAMP, ITL was higher (P <.01), and sleep onset and offset were earlier (P <.01). At this period, sleep interruptions and salivary cortisol were higher (P <.01, d = 1.6, d = 1.9, respectively), and subjective wellness was worsened (P <.01, d = 1.3). At POST-CAMP, the reduction of workload was followed by increased sleep efficiency, reduced sleep interruptions, and moderately affected salivary cortisol, yet overall wellness remained unaltered. In POST-CAMP, 2 of the players demonstrated severe symptoms of illness. Conclusions: At the highest level of the sport and prior to the Olympics, large increments in workload during a training camp induced meaningful sleep interruptions and salivary cortisol increases, both of which were reversed at POST-CAMP. We suggest that the increased workload alongside the inadequate recovery affects sleep patterns and may increase the risk of infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examined acute effects of dryland muscular endurance (ME) and maximum strength (MS) sessions on performance, physiological, and biomechanical variables during a subsequent sprint swimming session. Twenty-seven swimmers (16.5 ± 2.6 yrs) completed three experimental conditions including: i) ME, 55% of 1-repetition maximum, ii) MS, 90% of 1-repetition maximum, and iii) control (CON, no dry-land). Twenty minutes following ME, MS and CON sessions swimmers performed a 10-s tethered swimming sprint, four by 50-m (4 × 50-m), and a 100-m front crawl sprints. Performance time, blood lactate, heart rate (HR), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), stroke index (SI), and stroke efficiency (ηF) were measured during 4 × 50-m and 100-m. Hand grip strength (HG), and shoulder muscles isometric strength (ISO) were measured after each session. Mean 4 × 50-m time increased in ME compared to CON by 1.7 ± 2.7% (p = 0.01), while 100-m time was similar among conditions (p > 0.05). ISO was lower after dry-land training in all conditions (p = 0.01). Tethered force, HG, HR, SR, SL, SI, and ηF were no different between conditions (p > 0.05). Dryland ME session decrease swimming performance; however, ME and MS sessions did not affect technical ability during a subsequent maximum intensity swimming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine the effect of dryland training during an 11-week lockdown period due to COVID-19 on swimming performance. Methods: Twelve competitive swimmers performed 50- and 300-m maximum-effort tests in their preferred stroke and 200-, 400-, and four 50-m front crawl sprints (4 × 50 m) before and after the lockdown period. Critical speed as an index of aerobic endurance was calculated using (1) 50-, 300-, and (2) 200-, 400-m tests. Blood lactate concentration was measured after the 400- and 4 × 50-m tests. To evaluate strength-related abilities, the dryland tests included handgrip and shoulder isometric strength. Tethered swimming force was measured during a 10-second sprint. During the lockdown period, dryland training was applied, and the session rating of perceived exertion training (sRPE) load was recorded daily. Results: sRPE training load during the lockdown was decreased by 78% (16%), and critical speed was reduced 4.7% to 4.9% compared to prelockdown period (P <.05). Performance time in 200, 300, and 400 m deteriorated 2.6% to 3.9% (P <.05), while it remained unaltered in 4 × 50- and 50-m tests (P >.05). Tethered force increased 9% (10%) (P <.01), but handgrip and shoulder isometric force remained unaltered (P >.05). Blood lactate concentration decreased 19% (21%) after the 400-m test and was unchanged following the 4 × 50-m tests (P >.05). Conclusions: Performance deterioration in the 200, 300, and 400 m indicates reduced aerobic fitness and impaired technical ability, while strength and repeated-sprint ability were maintained. When a long abstention from swimming training is forced, dryland training may facilitate preservation in short-distance but not middle-distance swimming performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine the acute physiological responses and internal training load of long-interval swimming and water polo–specific drills in high-level water polo players. Methods: A total of 10 water polo players performed both a high-intensity swimming without ball (SW) with intensity corresponding to 90% of their maximum speed previously attained during a 300-m swimming test or a counterattack ball drill (CA). Both SW and CA conditions were designed to provide equal time exposure. Thus, 3 bouts of 4 minutes duration and a 3-minute passive rest were performed in each condition. The players' physiological responses were assessed by continuous monitoring heart rate (HR) during CA and SW as well as by measuring blood lactate at the end of each condition. Rating of perceived exertion was recorded at the end of each bout. The Edwards summated HR zones were used to measure internal training load. Results: Both peak and mean HR were similar between SW and CA, and no difference was detected between conditions in the percentage time spent at 90% to 100% of HRpeak. Postexercise blood lactate (8.5 [4.1] vs 11.5 [1.9] mmol·L−1) and rating of perceived exertion (8.1 [0.8] vs 8.7 [0.5] a.u.) values were lower in CA compared with SW (P <.05). Conclusions: SW compared with CA showed similar cardiac stress but increased anaerobic metabolism activation and higher rating of perceived exertion. Either CA or SW may be both used in training practice as a means to effectively train physical conditioning of water polo players, whereas CA may also facilitate tactical preparation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine the acute effect of dry-land strength training on physiological and biomechanical parameters in a subsequent swim training session. Methods: Twelve male swimmers (age: 19.0 [2.2] y, peak oxygen uptake: 65.5 [11.4] mL·kg-1·min-1) performed a 5 x 200-m test with progressively increasing intensity. Blood lactate (BL) concentration was measured after each 200-m bout, and the speed corresponding to 4 mmol·L-1 (V4) was calculated. In the experimental (EXP) and control (CON) conditions, swimmers participated in a swim training session consisting of 1000-m warm-up, a bout of 10-second tethered swimming sprint, and 5 x 400 m at V4. In EXP condition, swimmers completed a dry-land strength training session (load: 85% of 1-repetition maximum) 15 minutes before the swimming session. In CON condition, swimmers performed the swimming session only. Oxygen uptake, BL concentration, arm-stroke rate, arm-stroke length, and arm-stroke efficiency were measured during the 5 x 400 m. Results: Force in the 10-second sprint was not different between conditions (P = .61), but fatigue index was higher in the EXP condition (P = .03). BL concentration was higher in EXP condition and showed large effect size at the fifth 400-m repetition compared with CON condition (6.4 [2.7] vs 4.6 [2.8] mmol·L-1, d = 0.63). During the 5 x 400 m, arm-stroke efficiency remained unchanged, arm-stroke length was decreased from the third repetition onward (P = .01), and arm-stroke rate showed a medium increment in EXP condition (d = 0.23). Conclusions: Strength training completed 15 minutes before a swim training session caused moderate changes in biomechanical parameters and increased BL concentration during swimming. Despite these changes, swimmers were able to maintain force and submaximal speed during the endurance training session. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Botonis, PG, Smilios, I, Platanou, TI, and Toubekis, AG. Effects of an international tournament on heart rate variability and perceived recovery in elite water polo players. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2313–2317, 2022—The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of an international tournament participation in vagal-related heart rate variability and perceived recovery among elite water polo players. Nine elite water polo players participated in an intensified training week (pretournament) and then traveled abroad to take part in an international tournament including 3 high-competitive matches during a 4-day period. Internal workload was measured after training or competition. Morning, postwakening natural logarithm of the root mean square of successive differences (lnRMSSD) and measures of perceived recovery were obtained pretournament and daily during the tournament. Logarithm of the root mean square of successive differences was also measured 30 minutes after the completion of each match of the tournament. Logarithm of the root mean square of successive differences was suppressed after the first match (p = 0.03, d = −0.75), compared with the first morning of the tournament, rebounded the following morning (p = 0.03, d = 0.87), and remained unaltered until the third match. In the last morning of the tournament, LnRMSSD was higher compared with the first postmatch measurement (p = 0.002, d = 1.57) and tended to be higher than pretournament (p = 0.09, d = 0.81). Perceived recovery and internal workloads were lower in the tournament days compared with pretournament (p < 0.001, d = 2.0 and p < 0.001, d = 14.0, respectively). In conclusion, heart rate variability may stabilize and progressively increase by the end of a tournament, as compared with a pretournament training period, reflecting an enhanced parasympathetic reactivation may be due to the reduced training load. By contrast, perceived recovery was suppressed indicating that other factors may also influence the overall recovery of the players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To conduct a biophysical analysis of the factors associated with front-crawl performance at moderate and severe swimming intensities, represented by anaerobic-threshold (vAnT) and maximal-oxygen-uptake (v...O2max) velocities. Methods: Ten high-level swimmers performed 2 intermittent incremental tests of 7 x 200 and 12 x 25 m (through a system of underwater push-off pads) to assess vAnT, and v...O2max, and power output. The 1st protocol was videotaped (3D reconstruction) for kinematic analysis to assess stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), propelling efficiency (ηP), and index of coordination (IdC). ...O2 was measured and capillary blood samples (lactate concentrations) were collected, enabling computation of metabolic power. The 2nd protocol allowed calculating mechanical power and performance efficiency from the ratio of mechanical to metabolic power. Results: Neither vAnT nor v...O2max was explained by SF (0.56 ± 0.06 vs 0.68 ± 0.06 Hz), SL (2.29 ± 0.21 vs 2.06 ± 0.20 m), ηP (0.38 ± 0.02 vs 0.36 ± 0.03), IdC (-12.14 ± 5.24 vs -9.61 ± 5.49), or metabolic-power (1063.00 ± 122.90 vs 1338.18 ± 127.40 W) variability. V...O2max was explained by power to overcome drag (r = .77, P ≤ .05) and ηP (r = .72, P ≤ .05), in contrast with the nonassociation between these parameters and vAnT; both velocities were well related (r = .62, P ≤ .05). Conclusions: The biomechanical parameters, coordination, and metabolic power seemed not to be performance discriminative at either intensity. However, the increase in power to overcome drag, for the less metabolic input, should be the focus of any intervention that aims to improve performance at severe swimming intensity. This is also true for moderate intensities, as vAnT and v...O2max are proportional to each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of acute training load changes of elite water polo players on heart rate recovery (HRR) responses after a standardized swimming test. Nine water polo players were tested after a two-day light-load and two-day heavy-load training. Preliminarily, critical swimming speed was calculated. Testing comprised of an intermittent 4 × 100-m swimming separated by 10 s of rest with an intensity corresponding to 85% of their maximum speed previously attained during a 100-m swim test followed immediately by assessment of HRR. Internal training load (ITL) was measured using the rating of perceived exertion and the duration of training sessions. The swimming speed corresponded to 1.43 ± 0.06 m·s−1 and 1.45 ± 0.06 m·s−1 after light-load and heavy-load training, respectively (p = 0.06, d = 0.74). ITL was increased in high-load compared to light-load training (p < 0.001, d = 11.54). The difference in HR at end of exercise (HR-end) and after 60 s rest and the difference in mean HR during last min of exercise and HR after 60 s rest were higher in light-load training (p < 0.05, d = 0.85–1.15). The absolute change in ITL was correlated with the respective change in the percentage change of HR-end at 10 s of recovery (%HRR10s) (r = 0.72, p = 0.03). Significant correlation was observed between the percentage change of ITL with the %HRR10s (r = 0.67, p = 0.05). We conclude that HRR tracks acute changes in training load. The lower HRR following high-load training likely indicates a blunted parasympathetic re-activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine the effects of active and passive recovery of various durations after a 100-m swimming test performed at maximal effort. Methods: Eleven competitive swimmers (5 males, 6 females, age: 17.3 ± 0.6 y) completed two 100-m tests with a 15-min interval at a maximum swimming effort under three experimental conditions. The recovery between tests was 15 min passive (PAS), 5 min active, and 10 min passive (5ACT) or 10 min active and 5 min passive (10ACT). Self-selected active recovery started immediately after the first test, corresponding to 60 ± 5% of the 100-m time. Blood samples were taken at rest, 5, 10, and 15 min after the first as well as 5 min after the second 100-m test for blood lactate determination. Heart rate was also recorded during the corresponding periods. Results: Performance time of the first 100 m was not different between conditions (P > .05). The second 100-m test after the 5ACT (64.49 ± 3.85 s) condition was faster than 10ACT (65.49 ± 4.63 s) and PAS (65.89 ± 4.55 s) conditions (P < .05). Blood lactate during the 15-min recovery period between the 100-m efforts was lower in both active recovery conditions compared with passive recovery (P < .05). Heart rate was higher during the 5ACT and 10ACT conditions compared with PAS during the 15-min recovery period (P < .05). Conclusion: Five minutes of active recovery during a 15-min interval period is adequate to facilitate blood lactate removal and enhance performance in swimmers. Passive recovery and/or 10 min of active recovery is not recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To identify the physiological and anthropometric predictors of rhythmic gymnastics performance, which was defined from the total ranking score of each athlete in a national competition. Methods: Thirty-four rhythmic gymnasts were divided into 2 groups, elite (n = 15) and nonelite (n = 19), and they underwent a battery of anthropometric, physical fitness, and physiological measurements. The principal-components analysis extracted 6 components: anthropometric, flexibility, explosive strength, aerobic capacity, body dimensions, and anaerobic metabolism. These were used in a simultaneous multiple-regression procedure to determine which best explain the variance in rhythmic gymnastics performance. Results: Based on the principal-component analysis, the anthropometric component explained 45% of the total variance, flexibility 12.1%, explosive strength 9.2%, aerobic capacity 7.4%, body dimensions 6.8%, and anaerobic metabolism 4.6%. Components of anthropometric (r = .50) and aerobic capacity (r = .49) were significantly correlated with performance (P < .01). When the multipleregression model-y = 10.708 + (0.0005121 × VO2max) + (0.157 × arm span) + (0.814 × midthigh circumference) - (0.293 × body mass)-was applied to elite gymnasts, 92.5% of the variation was explained by VO2max (58.9%), arm span (12%), midthigh circumference (13.1%), and body mass (8.5%). Conclusion: Selected anthropometric characteristics, aerobic power, flexibility, and explosive strength are important determinants of successful performance. These findings might have practical implications for both training and talent identification in rhythmic gymnastics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]