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The prevention of excessive pressure build-up in pipelines requires a thorough understanding of water hammer phenomena. Using theoretical techniques, researchers have investigated this phenomenon and proposed productive solutions. In this article, we demonstrate a power spectral density approach on the pressure wave generated by water hammer in order to improve our understanding on the frequency domain approach as well as their fractal nature and complexity. This approach has the ability to explain some valuable attributes of the unsteady flow at a specific section, such as vulnerability and complexity that allow us more dynamic variables for effective analysis of pipe network design. Therefore, we aim to test a simple pipe system to simulate the proposed approach, which may offer useful physical information about pipeline network construction. The proposed method is expected to be beneficial and effective in acquiring a better understanding of the complicated features of unsteady flows as well as the sound acoustics within a pipe system and its design. In specific, our findings demonstrate the possibility for engineering design to comprehend the robustness, vulnerability, and complexity of pipe networks, as well as their sustainable construction.

Civil engineering students in the United States rarely receive instruction about how their work affects social inequities. Indeed, research reveals that most engineering students lack critical consciousness and fail to recognize and analyze real social inequity challenges as they arise in engineering contexts. As history demonstrates, this can lead to engineering projects that exacerbate inequality, ignore community questions and concerns, or fail to consider the consequences of communities when assessing project success. A key component to addressing these issues includes educators' ability to evaluate the critical consciousness (CC) of civil engineering students using survey approaches. Toward this goal, this research tested a critical consciousness scale for civil engineers (CCSCE). The CCSCE scale summarizes and factorizes 46 items that capture systems of oppression in civil engineering. The instrument included three indicators measuring critical consciousness (i.e., Critical Reflection: Perceived Inequality; Critical Reflection: Egalitarianism; and Critical Action: Sociopolitical Perception). The CCSCE scale was tested with 150 students at two universities in the United States. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a set of 15 items measuring critical reflection and action items. This study supports the development of concise measures of CC for civil engineers that is valid and reliable. The development of a CCSCE scale is vital for civil engineering education as it provides educators with an instrument to assess whether any educational interventions aimed at enhancing CC are indeed efficacious. The instrument can also be used to assess Accreditation Board of Engineering & Technology (ABET) learning Outcomes 2 and 4.