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Food supplements are defined as foodstuffs the purpose of which is to supplement the normal diet and which are concentrated sources of nutrients or other substances with a nutritional or physiological effect, often referred to as nutraceuticals, may exert benefit to the human body. Their use is increasing worldwide, including Europe and in Italy. However, some doctors are skeptical about their effectiveness and safety. This reluctance may depend on poor knowledge of the mechanisms of action and clinical evidence in literature. The Italian Society of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology (SIAIP) promoted the institution of an ad hoc Committee. The first initiative performed by this Committee was the administration of a questionnaire to the members of SIAIP.The results of this survey provided interesting results. Most pediatricians know the food supplement concept but frequently need help understanding the mechanisms of action. Most prescribe food supplements, mainly for preventing infections or enhancing immune defense. In addition, they prefer to use food supplements as cycles or add-on therapy. Finally, most participants like to attend events on this issue and contribute to new evidence through trials.In conclusion, this survey underscores the relevance of food supplement issues and attests to interest in this topic. However, there is a need to provide information and promote studies on this matter., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The prevalence of allergic diseases has dramatically increased among children in recent decades. These conditions significantly impact the quality of life of allergic children and their families. Lactoferrin, a multifunctional glycoprotein found in various biological fluids, is emerging as a promising immunomodulatory agent that can potentially alleviate allergic diseases in children. Lactoferrin's multifaceted properties make it a compelling candidate for managing these conditions. Firstly, lactoferrin exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which can mitigate the chronic inflammation characteristic of allergic diseases. Secondly, its iron-binding capabilities may help regulate the iron balance in allergic children, potentially influencing the severity of their symptoms. Lactoferrin also demonstrates antimicrobial properties, making it beneficial in preventing secondary infections often associated with respiratory allergies. Furthermore, its ability to modulate the immune response and regulate inflammatory pathways suggests its potential as an immune-balancing agent. This review of the current literature emphasises the need for further research to elucidate the precise roles of lactoferrin in allergic diseases. Harnessing the immunomodulatory potential of lactoferrin could provide a novel add-on approach to managing allergic diseases in children, offering hope for improved outcomes and an enhanced quality of life for paediatric patients and their families. As lactoferrin continues to capture the attention of researchers, its properties and diverse applications make it an intriguing subject of study with a rich history and a promising future.

Background: Primary acute genital ulcers, or Lipschütz ulcers (LU), are nonsexually transmitted, painful, self-limiting, nonrecurrent vulvar ulcers with unclear pathogenesis, representing a challenging diagnosis in emergency setting. LU have recently been described in association with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaVirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and vaccination., Objective: The aim of this study is to describe 2 cases of LU due to SARS-CoV-2 infection, highlighting the diagnostic process, differential diagnosis, disease course, and management options., Methods: We describe 2 young females (12 and 9 years old) who presented to pediatric emergency room with the sudden onset of well-demarcated, painful, vulvar ulcers with fibrinous necrotic center., Results: Both patients tested positive to SARS-CoV-2 nasal swab, and, at physical examination, no other lesions were found in other cutaneous or mucosal sites. Sexual abuse was excluded in both cases, as well as infectious and autoimmune diseases. Supportive analgesic therapy was administered, and complete remission of lesions was observed at follow-up visits without evidence of scarring., Limitations: The main limitation of this work is represented by the small number of cases described., Conclusion: Even though extremely rare, LU related to COVID-19 are an emerging entity to be considered in the diagnosis of acute genital ulcerations. Multidisciplinary diagnostic workup of genital ulcers must be established in order to exclude sexual child abuse, to ensure patient safety, and to avoid unnecessary treatment and familial anxiety., Competing Interests: None., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf of Women’s Dermatologic Society.)

Background: Diagnosing central precocious puberty (CPP) requires an integrated approach based on clinical, biochemical and instrumental data. The diagnostic gold standard is represented by GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone) stimulation test. Some undoubted limitations of this procedure led the international scientific community to look for cheaper and less invasive alternative diagnostic methods, such as luteinizing hormone urinary levels (uLH) measurement. This study aims to define the reliability of urinary LH levels as a biomarker of pubertal development, both concerning the initial diagnostic management and the monitoring of patients with central precocious puberty undergoing therapy with GnRH analogues. Furthermore, the study plans to detect the potential association between LH peak serum (pLH) and urinary LH in patients undergoing diagnostic tests with GnRH and to identify a possible cut-off of uLH that may be suggestive of ensued successful hormonal stimulation., Methods: The study includes 130 female patients with suspected precocious puberty or in follow-up during suppressive therapy. After the collection of the informed consent, the patients underwent clinical evaluation, auxological assessment, and hormone assays (basal levels of LH, FSH, and oestradiol; GnRH stimulating test in patients with suspected precocious puberty; urinary LH assay on the first-morning urine sample, collected after waking up)., Results: Two uLH cut-off values have been identified: the first of 0.25 UI/L [C.I. 95% 0.23-0.27], able to distinguish between pubertal and pre-pubertal patients, the second of 0.45 UI/L [C.I. 95% 0,20 - 0,70] suggestive of occurred hormonal stimulation in patients with diagnosis of CPP at GnRH test. All 30 patients with CPP in follow-up during suppressive therapy presented uLH values ≤ 0.45 IU/L (p U < 0.05), and uLH collected in prepubertal group control., Conclusions: uLH assays on the first morning urine specimen could be considered a low-cost and minimally invasive tool for precocious puberty diagnosing and monitoring, making possible to be easily performed even by a general pediatrician. Thus, this could help referring only selected patients to pediatric endocrinologists. After an appropriate validation, this approach could reasonably reduce hospital attendance and costs of performing more invasive procedures, with a more significant emotional impact on the pediatric patient., (© 2023. Società Italiana di Pediatria.)

Background and Aim: Disorders of sexual differentiation (DSD) with karyotype 46,XY include gonadal developmental differences such as complete gonadal dysgenesis, partial gonadal dysgenesis, testicular regression and ovotesticular sexual differentiation disorder, differences in androgen synthesis or action, such as androgen synthesis deficiency, androgen action deficits, LH receptor deficiency, AMH synthesis or action deficits, and other conditions such as severe hypospadias, cloaca estrophy, etc. Methods: A 17 years-old girl came to our attention for hirsutism, clitoral hypertrophy, primary amenorrhea, and bilateral mammary hypoplasia. According to clinical features and anamnesis, the diagnosis of 46, XY DSD was made. For diagnostic purposes, she underwent an extensive genetic analysis, hormone dosage and instrumental examinations. After a clitoridoplasty and hormone replacement treatment, the patient performs appropriate multidisciplinary follow-up and regular psychotherapy., Results: The clinical case reported falls, according to the recent classification developed by the Chicago Consensus, within the scope of DSD with karyotype 46, XY. About 160 cases of patients with 17β-HSD3 deficiency, diagnosed at a mean age of 12 years, are described in the literature, most of them coming from Western Asia and Europe and only three cases from Eastern Asia. Clinically, about 30% of patients showed virilization, 20% clitoromegaly, ambiguous genitalia, inguinal/labial mass, 16% primary amenorrhea, and 5% absence of mammary development, features that are partly traced in the case described here., Conclusions: This case underscores the complexity of managing individuals with DSD. Having acquired the concept that irreversible surgery should be avoided, except in cases where failure to do so would determine health risks, the primary objective of the medical decision lies in meeting conditions aimed at harmonious sexual identification, especially regarding sexual activity and fertility, involving a team of experienced professionals (psychologists, pediatricians, surgeons, endocrinologists, radiologists), capable of promptly identifying suggestive clinical signs.

Obesity is a multifactorial disease, and its prevalence in children has been increased over the last 30 years in Italy and many other European Countries. Obesity significantly impacts the quality of life of affected patients and health care systems. Obesity is related to several clinical comorbidities, especially metabolic syndrome and diabetes. The standard of care in this patient is still considered lifestyle changes and a healthy diet with regular physical activity to prevent associated metabolic complications (impaired glucose tolerance and type 2 diabetes) and reduce cardiovascular risk.Therefore, pediatricians should recognize potential risk factors (sedentary lifestyle, sugar, and fats-rich diet, genetic syndromes) and early signs of overweight and obesity to promptly address the child to a pediatric endocrinologist and a specialized reference Center.

Background and Aim of the Study: The high prevalence of obesity and obesity-related comorbidities has reached pandemic proportions, particularly in Western countries. It has been recently recognized as a significant risk factor in severe cases of COVID-19 in children and adolescents. Here, we summarize the existing knowledge regarding the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and consider how its various components may be exacerbated by the presence of obesity to investigate the impact of obesity on disease severity among patients with COVID-19 and collaborate for better clinical care of these patients., Methods: The literature search was conducted from March 2020 to January 2022. A review of articles was performed via the online database PubMed, combining the terms "obesity," "weight gain," "COVID-19", "children.", Results: Excessive adipose tissue, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, high levels of proinflammatory cytokines are factors that compromise the functioning of organs and systems in obese patients. In obese patients with COVID-19 these changes can increase the risk of death, need for ventilatory assistance, risk of thromboembolism, and perpetuation of inflammatory response., Conclusions: Obesity increases the risk for hospitalization, intensive care admission, mechanic ventilation requirement, and death among children and adolescents with COVID-19. These findings emphasize the need for effective actions by health professionals to increase awareness of the risks resulting from obesity and how these are heightened in the current global pandemic.

Background and Aim: Lipschutz ulcers (LU) are idiopathic genital lesions characterized by the sudden appearance of painful, usually symmetric vulvar ulcers, typically occurring in sexually inactive adolescents. LU is a diagnosis of exclusion. As these lesions heal spontaneously, in the absence of tissue scarring, the therapy is mainly symptomatic and focuses on pain relief. Recurrence of LU associated with oral ulcers describes the clinical picture of complex aphthosis, which belongs to Behçet's disease (BD) pathological spectrum. Our work aims to analyze the correct diagnostic approach to recurrent aphthous, focusing on the importance of a multidisciplinary assessment and immunogenetic investigation to identify the subjects at risk of progression towards BD.   Methods: We present the case of a 12-year-old non sexually active Italian girl who was diagnosed with LU. After 15 months, she presented recurrent reactive non sexually related acute genital ulcer associated with a history of oral aphthous. According to clinical features and anamnesis, complex aphthosis was diagnosed. For diagnostic purposes, she underwent an immunogenetic analysis that showed HLA-B51 positivity., Results: In the absence of clinical and laboratory criteria to define the risk of progression of complex aphtosis towards BD, we think that besides a strict follow-up, in pediatric patients with a suggestive clinical history, it is crucial to adopt a multidisciplinary approach, comprehensive of HLA investigation, in order to guarantee an early diagnosis and a prompt therapeutic intervention., Conclusions: In children and adolescents with genital ulcers, it is essential to consider all the possible differential diagnoses to undertake a timely and correct course of treatment.

Background and Aim: Pseudohypoparathyroidism (PHP) is a rare disease, which can occur in the youth, characterized by hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia due to resistance to parathyroid hormone (PTH) in target organs. This condition encompasses different conditions which differ between one another by different clinical, biochemically, and genetic features., Methods: Herein we report the clinical history of a boy with PHP1B with an interesting clinical presentation. He came in fact to the attention of the Emergency Department because of a spontaneously resolving epileptic attack, lasting about 15 minutes, characterized by loss of consciousness, fall to the ground, tonic-clonic shocks, and sphincter release. Moreover, the personal history was characterized by congenital long QT syndrome (LQTS), with a documented mutation of the KCNQ1 gene, treated with beta-blockers (nadolol)., Results: The simultaneous presence of symptomatic acute hypocalcemia and long QT syndrome undoubtedly required particular attention both in the management of the onset and in the more in-depth subsequent diagnostics. In this regard, laboratory tests and molecular analyzes have proved to be crucial in the diagnostic process. Conclusions: this case underlines the diagnostic path complexity in patients with PTH elevation and the importance of considering all the possible differential diagnoses in order to undertake a timely and correct course of treatment.

Background: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) in neonates is a rare and heterogeneous disorder. HCM accounts for 25 to 40% of all pediatric cardiomyopathy cases and the highest incidence in pediatric population is reported in children < 1 year., Case Presentation: we report two clinical cases of neonates, born to mothers respectively with a pre-pregnancy insulin-dependent diabetic mellitus type 2 and a suspected diabetes, with inadequate prenatal glycemic control for the first and underestimated glycemic control for the second case, with a different evolution. In the first case, a slow evidence of improvement of the HCM was observed, persuading us to the diagnosis of a diabetes-related HCM; In the second case the progressive worsening of the HCM during follow-up in association with further investigations, resulted in the diagnosis of Pompe disease., Conclusions: Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in newborns can be the clinical expression of different underlying disorders. We aim to show the importance both to reassess maternal and family history and critically evaluate the physical examination in order to address the correct differential diagnosis. Furthermore it is important to continue a regular cardiologic follow-up for this pathology with neonatal onset to prevent a poor prognosis., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Obesity has reached pandemic proportion and represents a major risk for several comorbidities. In addition to metabolic and cardiovascular obesity-related diseases, recent evidence suggested that obesity might affect immune system function. Adipose tissue is considered an endocrine organ that actively secretes cytokines also referred to as "adipokines." Adipokines play an important role in the control of human metabolism. The dysfunctional adipose tissue in obese individuals is characterized by an altered cytokine secretion pattern that promotes chronic low-grade inflammation. Epidemiological evidence highlights the association between obesity and allergic and immune-mediated diseases, such as asthma, allergic rhinitis, rheumatic arthritis, and psoriasis. Less is known about underlying pathogenic mechanisms. However, several recent in vivo and in vitro studies have reported that adipokines are involved in inflammatory and autoimmune disorders by influencing both innate and acquired immune responses. In addition, obesity has been associated with reduced immune surveillance and increased risk of cancer. This paper reviews the evidence regarding the role of adipokines in immune system regulation, with particular emphasis on autoimmune, allergic, and inflammatory disorders. Understanding how obesity affects immune system functions may enable researchers to find new potential therapeutic targets in the management of allergic and autoimmune diseases., (Copyright © 2019 Umano, Pistone, Tondina, Moiraghi, Lauretta, Miraglia del Giudice and Brambilla.)