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Children and young people have different challenges as they progress in their school development, one of them is the maintenance of high ranks in academic performance, music as a tool to improve sensory skills has been shown to have a positive influence when combined with In the educational field, the present research, based on this premise, set itself the objective of determining the academic performance of children and young people with musical aptitudes belonging to the Caldas Symphonic Bands Program. For this purpose, a methodology with a quantitative approach and a non-experimental transactional correlation design was used. Out of a total of 1,926, a sample was selected by conglomerates in a simple stage, of 482 instrumentalists (282 men and 200 women). For the rest, the Seashore Music Skills Test was chosen for the assessment of musical aptitudes, whose most relevant results showed that the correlations among all the variables that evaluate the musical aptitudes are all positive, besides being all significant with a significance of 5%. The highest is between the time and tonal memory (0.4991), while the most incorrect is between the intensity and timbre (0.1478). In summary, it could be determined that women present better grades in Spanish and mathematics than men, while the opposite occurs with respect to tonal memory

Behavioral and neuropsychological studies have suggested that tonal and verbal short‐term memory are supported by specialized neural networks. To date however, neuroimaging investigations have failed to confirm this hypothesis. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis of distinct neural resources for tonal and verbal memory by comparing typical nonmusician listeners to individuals with congenital amusia, who exhibit pitch memory impairments with preserved verbal memory. During fMRI, amusics and matched controls performed delayed‐match‐to‐sample tasks with tones and words and perceptual control tasks with the same stimuli. For tonal maintenance, amusics showed decreased activity in the right auditory cortex, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and dorso‐lateral‐prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Moreover, they exhibited reduced right‐lateralized functional connectivity between the auditory cortex and the IFG during tonal encoding and between the IFG and the DLPFC during tonal maintenance. In contrasts, amusics showed no difference compared with the controls for verbal memory, with activation in the left IFG and left fronto‐temporal connectivity. Critically, we observed a group‐by‐material interaction in right fronto‐temporal regions: while amusics recruited these regions less strongly for tonal memory than verbal memory, control participants showed the reversed pattern (tonal > verbal). By benefitting from the rare condition of amusia, our findings suggest specialized cortical systems for tonal and verbal short‐term memory in the human brain.

The present study attempts to extend the research on the effects of phonetic training on the production and perception of second-language (L2) vowels. We also examined whether success in learning L2 vowels through high-variability intensive phonetic training is related to the learners' general musical abilities. Forty Azerbaijani learners of Standard Southern British English participated in a pre-test/training/post-test setting. Discrimination and production tests were used in pre- and post-tests. The participants' musical ability was evaluated through three musical aptitude tests. Results revealed a significant improvement in the discrimination and production of L2 vowels after training. However, the lack of a one-to-one relationship between production and perception gains suggests distinct representations underlying L2 speech perception and production. There was no significant correlation between overall musical ability scores and L2 vowel learning, however, results revealed a correlation between discrimination improvements and tonal memory. This suggests tonal memory facilitates the perceptual learning of the novel phonological structure of L2.

The present functional magnetic resonance imaging study investigates the neural substrates of relative pitch. Musicians and nonmusicians performed 2 same/different discrimination tasks (simple and transposed melody) that differed in whether they required precise encoding and comparison of relative pitch structure, along with 2 control tasks (rhythm and phoneme). The transposed melody task involved a musical transposition of 4 semitones between the target and comparison patterns, requiring listeners to use interval information rather than the absolute value of the individual pitches. Contrasting the transposed melody to the simple melody condition revealed greater activation in the cortex within the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) bilaterally; control tasks did not elicit significant activity in the IPS. Moreover, a whole-brain voxel-wise regression analysis of brain oxygenation level-dependent signal showed that activity within the right IPS predicted task performance for both musicians and nonmusicians specifically in the transposed melody condition. Successful performance of the transposed melody task requires encoding and comparison of auditory patterns having different tonal reference points-thus simple tonal memory is not sufficient. Our results point to a role for the IPS in transforming high-level auditory information. We suggest that this area may support a general capacity for transformation and comparison of systematically related stimulus attributes.

La investigación presenta el trabajo realizado en el ámbito de la mejora de la memoria tonal en estudiantes de educación secundaria, y plantea demostrar la importancia de la educación musical en esta etapa. El objetivo principal es constatar la capacidad para mejorar los procesos cognitivos básicos del ser humano a través de la enseñanza de la música, contribuyendo a optimizar las aptitudes musicales, entre las que se incluye la memoria tonal. Los primeros estudios sobre psicología de la música surgen con Carl E. Seashore a principios del s. XX, y proponen estudiar la influencia de la música en el ser humano, diseñando para ello una prueba musical con la finalidad de detectar personas con aptitudes musicales, creando así el Test de Aptitudes Musicales en 1939 y cubriendo así, una necesidad de medición de las aptitudes. El contenido de esta comunicación aborda el marco teórico necesario para enmarcar, comprender y desarrollar el trabajo experimental realizado. Se ha efectuado una revisión de las aportaciones más relevantes de la psicología aplicada a la música: la psicología cognitiva, la psicología de la memoria y las aptitudes musicales; además analizamos el test utilizado, el test de Aptitudes Musicales de Seashore que contiene pruebas para medir seis variables: tono, intensidad, ritmo, tiempo, timbre y memoria tonal. En esta última variable nos centraremos más detenidamente para demostrar como la enseñanza musical en la etapa secundaria puede mejorar la memoria tonal. En la parte experimental se presenta la justificación, los objetivos e hipótesis planteadas, así como la metodología seguida en la investigación. Para elaborar el trabajo empírico hemos aplicado el Test mencionado a alumnado de 2º de ESO. Durante el procedimiento se ha suministrado al principio y al final del curso escolar, y se ha evaluado si existen resultados significativos después de la intervención realizada. The research presents the work done in the field of improving the tonal memory in high school students, and sets out to demonstrate the importance of music education in secondary education. The main objective is to verify the ability to enhance the human being’s basic cognitive processes through the teaching of music, helping to optimize the musical aptitude, including the tonal memory. The first studies on music psychology was done by Carl E. Seashore at the beginning of the 20th century, and they intend to explore the influence of music on human beings, designing a musical test in order to detect people with musical skills, thus creating the Musical Aptitude Test in 1939 and meeting a need in that way for measurement skills. The content of this communication addresses the need to frame, understand and develop the theoretical framework experimental work. A review of the most important contributions of applied psychology to music has been carried at: cognitive psychology, the psychology of memory and musical skills; we have also analyzed the test used, Seashore’s musical aptitude test while contains tests to measure six variables: tone, intensity, rhythm, tempo, timbre and tonal memory. In this last variable we focus more closely to demonstrate how music education at the secondary stage can improve the tonal memory. In the experimental part, the reasons, objectives, hypothesis and the methodology used in the research are presented. We have applied the test referred to students of 2nd ESO. To develop empirical work whether there are significant results after the intervention. Finally, the research has been supplied at the beginning and end of the school year and it has also been evaluated whether there are significant results after the intervention.

Few attempts have been made to look systematically at the relationship between musical and intonation analysis skills, a relationship that has been to date suggested only by informal observations. Following Mackenzie Beck (2003), who showed that musical ability was a useful predictor of general phonetic skills, we report on two studies investigating the relationship between musical skills, musical training, and intonation analysis skills in English. The specially designed music tasks targeted pitch direction judgments and tonal memory. The intonation tasks involved locating the nucleus, identifying the nuclear tone in stimuli of different length and complexity, and same / different contour judgments. The subjects were university students with basic training in intonation analysis. Both studies revealed an overall significant relationship between musical training and intonation task scores, and between the music test scores and intonation test scores. A more detailed analysis, focusing on the relationship between the individual music and intonation tests, yielded a more complicated picture. The results are discussed with respect to differences and similarities between music and intonation, and with respect to form and function of intonation. Implications of musical training on development of intonation analysis skills are considered. We argue that it would be beneficial to investigate the differences between musically trained and untrained subjects in their analysis of both musical stimuli and intonational form from a cognitive point of view.

Children with developmental speech disorders may have additional deficits in speech perception and/or short-term memory. To determine whether these are only transient developmental delays that can accompany the disorder in childhood or persist as part of the speech disorder, adults with a persistent familial speech disorder were tested on speech perception and short-term memory. Nine adults with a persistent familial developmental speech disorder without language impairment were compared with 20 controls on tasks requiring the discrimination of fine acoustic cues for word identification and on measures of verbal and nonverbal short-term memory. Significant group differences were found in the slopes of the discrimination curves for first formant transitions for word identification with stop gaps of 40 and 20 ms with effect sizes of 1.60 and 1.56. Significant group differences also occurred on tests of nonverbal rhythm and tonal memory, and verbal short-term memory with effect sizes of 2.38, 1.56, and 1.73. No group differences occurred in the use of stop gap durations for word identification. Because frequency-based speech perception and short-term verbal and nonverbal memory deficits both persisted into adulthood in the speech-impaired adults, these deficits may be involved in the persistence of speech disorders without language impairment.

In the present study, the modifiability of both visual and auditory modalities of analytical perception was studied, as a result of mediation through IE in a teachers' college. The experimental group consisted of students specializing in special education. The two control groups consisted of students specializing in general teaching and in special education. The training period lasted 3 months. Prior to and after the 3 month training period in which only the experimental group was given IE all the groups were tested for their analytical and musical abilities (pitch, tonal memory, chords, and rhythmic memory). The modifiability of the experimental group in their analytical ability was significantly greater than the control groups. The most significant change in the musical abilities of the experimental group occurred with regard to chord analysis. A significant correlation was found between the visual and some of the auditory abilities.

The purpose of this investigation was to acquire data regarding the validity of reproduction tonal memory tests by examining the relationships between performances on an existing reproduction tonal memory test and performances on several recognition tonal memory tests. Analysis of 210 fifth- through twelfth-grade students' scores on one reproduction test and four recognition tests of tonal memory revealed moderate relationships (r = .47 to .66) between the two types of tests. Stepwise multiple regression revealed a moderately strong predictive relationship between a combination of three recognition measures and the reproduction test (R = .73, R2 = .53). Little change was noted in the relationship between the two types of tests with regard to singing experience. Although the reproduction tonal memory test was tentatively deemed a valid measure, the following additional research and analysis was suggested: (a) continued consideration of gender, ability, and total musical experience as they affect overall validity, and (b) the creation of a more reliable recognition test alternative.

We evaluated the efficiency, precision, and concurrent validity of results obtained from adaptive and fired-item music listening tests in three studies: (a) a computer simulation study in which each of 2,200 simulees completed a computerized adaptive tonal memory test, a computerized fired-item tonal memory test constructed from items in the adaptive test pool and two standardized group-administered tonal memory tests; (b) a live testing study in which each of 204 examinees took the computerized adaptive test and the standardized tests; and (c) a live testing study in which randomly equivalent groups took either the computerized adaptive test (n = 86) or the computerized fired-item test (n = 86). The adaptive music test required 50% to 93% fewer items to match the reliability and concurrent validity of the fired-item tests, and it yielded higher levels of reliability and concurrent validity than the fired-item tests when test length was held constant. These findings suggest that computerized adaptive tests, which typically have been limited to visually produced items, may also be well suited for measuring skills that require aurally produced items.

A prior study documented the failure of dyslexic men to activate left temporoparietal cortex during phonologic processing. Because of reports of an anomalous right planum temporale in developmental dyslexia, the functional implications of which are unknown, this study examined the ability of dyslexics to activate right temporal cortex. Regional cerebral blood flow was measured in 15 right-handed dyslexic men during rest and during a tonal memory task expected to activate right-sided cortex in controls. A matched control sample (n = 18) showed significant activation of several right frontotemporal regions as well as of left temporal cortex. In contrast, severely dyslexic men activated fewer right frontotemporal regions, while making many more errors than controls, but showed normal activation of left mid to anterior temporal cortex. These results support hypothesized underlying deficits in rapid temporal processing and possible involvement of right (in addition to left) temporal cortex in severe dyslexia.

In this study, we compared the efficiency, reliability, validity, and motivational benefits of computerized-adaptive and self-adapted music-listening tests (referred to hereafter as CAT and SAT, respectively). Junior high school general music students completed a tonal memory CAT, a tonal memory SAT, standardized music aptitude and achievement tests; and questionnaires assessing test anxiety, demographics, and attitudes about the CAT and SAT. Standardized music test scores and music course grades served as criterion measures in the concurrent validity analysis. Results showed that the SAT elicited more favorable attitudes from examinees and yielded ability estimates that were higher and less correlated with test anxiety than did the CAT. The CAT, however, required fewer items and less administration time to match the reliability and concurrent validity of the SAT and yielded higher levels of reliability and concurrent validity than the SAT when test length was held constant. These results reaffirm importa...

Over a period of 10 years, first-year students from 11 consecutive veterinary classes conducted a self-assessment using a natural abilities survey. The present study analyzes the data compiled from students' self-assessment results. As a group, veterinary students are exceptional problem solvers, either through inductive or deductive reasoning, and have strong spatial relations capacities. Veterinary students have a range of learning styles with design memory being the primary vehicle for information delivery and tonal memory being the least frequently used style overall. Information gained on each student's natural abilities can be used to guide effective career decision making and enhance prospects for long-term career satisfaction.

The purpose of this three-phase investigation was to develop and evaluate a computerized adaptive test of tonal memory. In the first phase, characteristics of commercially available tonal memory tests (instrument timbre, rhythmic complexity, tonality) were systematically varied and compared to determine the types of items most likely to yield reliable and valid scores. Results from ANOVA, factor-analytic, correlation, and regression analyses indicated that synthesizer-produced, varied-rhythm tonal and atonal melodies of four to nine notes would provide reliable and concurrently valid scores over a wide range of ability levels. In the second phase, the adaptive test was constructed, and its measurement precision and efficiency were evaluated in a series of computer-simulation analyses. Results showed that the adaptive test required 5 to 11 items to yield reliabilities from .80 to .90, and 80% fewer items to surpass the reliability of the Seashore Tonal Memory Test. In the final phase, the adaptive test was field-tested on the PLATO computer system. In line with the computer-simulation findings, the adaptive test required an average of 6.05, 8.55, and 11.60 items to reach reliabilities of .80, .85, and .90, respectively.

Absolute pitch (AP) is a rare skill, historically defined as the ability to name notes. Until now, methodologic limitations made it impossible to directly test the extent to which the development of AP depends on musical training. Using a new paradigm, we tested children with minimal musical experience. Although most children performed poorly, two performed comparably to adult possessors of AP. Follow-up testing showed that the performance of both children progressed to that of "classic" AP. These data support the theory that AP can result from differences in the encoding of stimulus frequency that are independent of musical experience.

The etiology and defining characteristics of absolute pitch (AP) have been controversial. To test the importance of musical training in the development of this skill, we developed a new paradigm for identifying AP that is independent of a subject's musical experience. We confirm the efficacy of the paradigm using classically defined AP and non-AP musicians. We then present data from a nonmusician who nevertheless appears to possess AP. We conclude that musical training is not necessary for the development of AP.

The main purposes of this study were to replicate, validate, and extend measures of sensitivity to musical pitch and to determine whether performance on tests of tonal structure and pitch memory was related to, or dissociated from, performance on tests of nonmusical cognitive skills -- standardized tests of cognitive abstraction, vocabulary, and memory for digits and nonrepresentational figures. Factor analyses of data from 100 neurologically intact participants revealed a dissociation between music and nonmusic variables, both for the full data set and a set for which the possible contribution of levels of music training was statistically removed. A neurologically impaired participant, C.N., scored within the range of matched controls on nonmusic tests but much lower than controls on music tests. The study provides further evidence of a functional specificity for musical pitch abilities. How various types of cognitive abilities are related, and further, how musical abilities are related to other abilities are questions with both a long history and current importance in cognitive psychology and the psychology of music. Music listening and performance engage a variety of processing levels - from elementary sensory-motor encoding to higher-level relational and symbolic representations. Music perception and cognition invite comparisons to other perceptual and cognitive processes, both in terms of commonalities and of differences. For example, both music and speech are highly structured forms of communication processed by the auditory system. It has been suggested that precocious abilities in music and speech emerge from common origins (e.g., Davidson & Scripp, 1988; Lynch, Short, & Chua, 1995; Trehub & Trainor, 1993). Warren (1993) remarks that "our use of speech and our production and enjoyment of music are based on an elaboration of global organizational skills possessed by our prelinguistic ancestors" (p. 64). Bigand (1993) comments on general cognitive constraints influencing not only hierarchical organization in music and speech but symbolic processing in general. However, the ongoing search for and description of functional music modules (e.g., Deliege, 1995) illustrates concern for the differentiation of musical abilities from one another and from other cognitive abilities. Distinct neurological processes revealed by brain electrical activity (e.g., Besson, 1997), cerebral blood flow patterns measured with positron emission tomography (e.g., Zatorre, Evans, & Meyer, 1994; Zatorre, Halpern, Perry, Meyer, & Evans, 1996), and patterns of dissociation found in neurologically compromised individuals (e.g., Patel & Peretz, 1997) indicate mental operations specific to the domain of music. Taken together, therefore, accounts of both integration and differentiation have been proposed. A further illustration, one of the earliest and most pertinent to the present study, concerns the relation of music and intelligence. Music and intelligence Earlier in this century, Spearman (1904, 1927) concluded that music shared the common g or general function with all other branches of intellectual activity, but allowed that a specific music factor s was operating in its own right. Within the next few decades, researchers identified a music group factor beyond g, but as Vernon (1950) noted, the factor was poor in reliability. Moreover, no consistent sub-grouping of musical factors such as pitch, rhythm, and tonal memory was found. Subsequent studies, however, continued to provide encouragement for the notion that musical abilities were separable from general intelligence. Shuter-Dyson and Gabriel (1981) summarized a large number of studies (involving some 16,000 participants) that examined the relations between intelligence and musical abilities as measured by standard musical aptitude tests assessing a wide variety of musical skills. All reported correlations, though positive, were low. …

✓ It has been widely accepted that the right temporal lobe plays a major role in the processing of music. One of the main lines of evidence was derived from Milner's study, published in 1962, which reported that right temporal lobectomy led to a decline in patient scores on four of the six subtests (Tonal Memory, Timbre, Loudness, and Time subtests) of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents. That finding had led some surgeons and patients to hesitate in choosing right temporal lobectomy as a treatment for intractable epilepsy. The authors examined performance on the Seashore Measures before and after operations in 20 patients with right temporal lobectomy and nine patients with left temporal lobectomy. No disturbances in the Seashore Measures were detected after temporal lobectomy on either side. The extent of these temporal lobectomies was smaller than that of the temporal lobectomies in Milner's study, as measured along the sylvian fissure (1.5–4 cm; mean 2.7 cm, standard deviation (SD) 0.92 cm) and the base of the temporal lobe (3.5–5.5 cm; mean 4.7 cm, SD 0.63 cm). These findings indicate that the region resected on right temporal lobectomy in the present study is not essential for basic musical processing.

The ability to identify and reproduce sounds of specific frequencies, typically called ‘‘perfect pitch,’’ is remarkable and uncommon. Whether this skill is learned early in life or inherited has been a matter of great controversy. Further, a substantial literature suggests that ‘‘perfect pitch’’ may be heterogeneous. Previously, we proposed a model to account for heterogeneity. The model subdivides individuals capable of naming notes accurately into two groups: possessors of true absolute pitch (AP), who automatically encode the frequency of all tonal stimuli, precategorically and independent of their source; and possessors of heightened tonal memory (HTM), who identify tones by comparing them to a memorized tonal template. The ability of individuals with HTM to identify tonal stimuli should depend strongly on the tones’ acoustical properties, such as timbre or chroma. Three experiments sought to test this hypothesis directly. Individuals claiming ‘‘perfect pitch’’ were recruited and initially classified as having AP or HTM. Consistent with the model, the two groups differed significantly in their sensitivity to the targets’ timbre, chroma, and tonal context, suggesting that they may use different mechanisms to identify tonal stimuli. The model may help reconcile the long‐standing controversy between early learning and genetic theories of ‘‘perfect pitch.’’

The pattern of cerebral degeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients suggests that basic auditory capacities should be normal in AD, whereas progressively higher levels of auditory function should be increasingly impaired. To test this hypothesis, we administered tests of auditory capacities associated with primary auditory cortex (sound localization and perception of complex tones) and auditory association cortex (phoneme discrimination, timbre discrimination, and tonal memory) to 19 mildly to moderately demented AD patients, 21 elderly control subjects (ECS), and 14 young control subjects (YCS). The results showed significant differences between YCS and ECS on phoneme discrimination with synthetic speech and on tonal memory. The AD group differed from the ECS group on sound localization, one measure of synthetic speech discrimination, and timbre discrimination. Performance did not correlate with age, dementia severity, or duration of illness on any test condition. These findings indicate that although AD is accompanied by specific auditory deficits, the increase in neuropathologic change between primary auditory and auditory association cortices is not reflected in an increased impairment of functions that are mediated by these areas. Degraded aural language comprehension, which is characteristic of AD, likely reflects disruption of language processes, rather than dysfunction specific to auditory circuits.

During the last century a number of clinical reports have indicated that left hemisphere lesions produce speech/language deficit, whereas damage to the right hemisphere leads to impaired musical function (reviewed by Gordon and Bogen, 1974). Consistent with these findings Milner (1962) reported that the Seashore timbre and tonal memory subtests were impaired after right temporal lobectomy, and not by left temporal lobectomy.

Patients with intractable epilepsy treated by anterior temporal lobectomy (Right, RT, n = 12; Left, LT, n = 9) and healthy controls (n = 12) with no musical training were prospectively evaluated with a standardized battery, including the Musical Aptitude Profile and the Seashore Tonal Memory Test. Before surgery, patients performed below controls (P less than 0.001), but there were no differences between RT and LT patients. After resection (2 weeks), RT patients showed a differential decline on tasks measuring perception of meter (P = 0.005) and tempo (P = 0.008) but not tonal processes. LT, and controls studied at the same time interval, showed no decline. The results support the role of the right hemisphere in specific aspects of musical processing.

Patients with Huntington's Disease (HD) who were without dementia were compared to unilateral stroke patients and controls as previously reported in 1983, to discover if they had a prosodic defect. Subjects were presented tape-recorded speech filtered sentences and asked to indicate the tone of voice as happy, sad or angry (affective prosody), or as a question, command or statement (propositional prosody). HD patients were impaired in comprehension of both types of prosody compared to controls but were not different from stroke patients. A second study compared early HD patients with at-risk siblings and spouse controls on comprehension of affective and propositional prosody, discrimination of both types of prosody, rhythm discrimination and tonal memory (Seashore tests). HD patients were impaired in both comprehension and discrimination of all types of prosody. HD patients were less accurate than at-risk patients on the tonal memory task but not on the rhythm discrimination task. These findings suggest compromise in ability to understand the more subtle prosodic aspects of communication which may contribute to social impairment of HD patients very early in the course of the disease.

The development of pitch perception and memory in language and music among 6‐ to 15‐year‐old Otomi‐speaking children of either sex and Zapotec‐speaking children of the same age and of either sex was studied. These languages are characterized by the use of lexical tones. For the analysis of musical abilities, Bentley’s Tests of Pitch Discrimination and of Tonal Memory were employed; for that of language abilities, special tests were devised that measured the perception and memory of tonal changes in either Otomi or Zapotec words. Results showed that development of abilities in music in Otomi‐speaking children followed a course that was parallel to, although significantly below, that obtained by Bentley in his original study of 1966 in England. In the Otomi‐speaking group, the course of development of abilities in language was above that of those in music. On the other hand, the same tests in Zapotec‐speaking children provided data that were very irregular and further below the average obtained by the Otomi‐speaking children. Interestingly, the application of Raven’s Progressive Matrices and Koppitz’s Test of Human Figure Drawings to these two groups of subjects indicated that, generally, Zapotec‐speaking children had a higher cognitive level than Otomi‐speaking children. [Work supported by Fondo de Neurologia, Hospital Infantil de Mexico.]

discover the unique culture of another people. The gamelan was from Java, Indonesia. The University was UCLA. Subsequently, similar ensembles came from many parts of Southeast Asia and the Philippines to serve universities world-wide as primary resources in the field of ethnomusicology. That period of 46 years I have titled "Ethnomusicology's Bronze Age."' Let me broaden my first statement by adding one made 30 years ago. ... [T]he arts are a kind of camera obscura of society. Like that optical wonder, they reduce the whole of its identity-sanctions and values, sacred and secular beliefs and customs-to a faithful reflection in miniature, in living colors" (Hood 1971:xviii). I want to show that usage of bronze ensembles can be enhanced by several things in Y2K: 1) by learning to hear the unique sounds of a particular bronze ensemble (N.B. the key words "unique" and "particular"); 2) by developing a better approach to sonic analysis in the laboratory; and 3) by addressing problems of tonal memory retained from learning to play an instrument or to sing or even to speak. Deeply imbedded tonal memory can affect efforts in learning to play or sing or speak in an unfamiliar idiom.

This study investigated the effects of differing loudness levels on discrimination of pitch, rhythm, duration, loudness, timbre, and tonal memory. Subjects were 101 university undergraduates, and comparisons were made for music versus nonmusic majors, males versus females, and those with exposure versus nonexposure to loud sounds. Analysis of variance procedures revealed the significant influence of varying loudness levels on rhythm, duration, loudness, and timbre discriminations. Music and nonmusic majors responded similarly, though several interactions were noted. No major differences appeared concerning the sex variable nor the exposure to loudness grouping; however, the nonexposure subjects fared more favorably in a preponderance of mean data comparisons (15 of 21)— a trend most marked among the nonmusic majors. Implications were that less intense presentation levels should be employed to enhance timbre discriminations, louder presentation levels to enhance perception and discrimination of loudness or dynamic variation. Also noted was the need to view cautiously those test norms and results acquired without rigorous control of loudness presentation levels.

Evaluated differences in performance between adult males and females with respect to Halstead's Neuropsychological Battery, additional tests employed by Reitan (Trail Making Test, Aphasia Screening Test, Perceptual Examination, dynamometer), and other neuropsychological measures (Seashore Tonal Memory Test, Logical Memory and Visual Reproduction portions of the Wechsler Memory Scale). In evaluating differences, 47 matched pairs of non-neurologic males and females were employed. as well as 47 pairs of neurologic patients. A small number of statistically significant differences were found, all of which favored males. Some of these differences occurred with respect to tasks that have very strong motor components, and these differences were shown to be related to hand size. Others pertained to tasks that have strong visual-spatial components. In general, the differences were less prominent with the neurologic than the non-neurologic samples. The question was raised as to possible over-representation of male-superior components in these tests.

A battery of auditory tests was given under the conditions of monaural and binaural presentation. The results indicated that both primary and second-order factors were similar to those found earlier with the same tests. The hierarchical solu tion also indicated that most of the differences be tween the conditions of presentation occurred at the lowest order of factoring. Differences between the means showed the same trends as those reported in the literature on hemispheric specialization. Ob tained first-order factors were interpreted as Tonal Memory, Speech Perception Under Distraction/Dis tortion, and Maintaining and Judging Rhythm, all representing a measure of General Auditory Func tion. In addition, a broad first-order factor of Fluid Intelligence was identified along with Temporal Tracking, representing an interesting new com ponent. Although General Auditory Function is a broad perceptual factor akin to General Visualiza tion, it differs from the latter in an important way. It is suggested that competition between the audi tory messages may be typical of General Auditory Function but that the hemispheric localization is not.

Right, as well as left, temporal patients were significantly impaired on shot-sterm auditory memory for consonant trigrams. The severity of the deficit shown by both groups was not related to the association value (low, medium, high) of the trigrams or the duration of the intertrial intervals (from 6 sec to 1 min) used in this study. Right temporal patients were also deficient on tests of tonal memory and delayed facial recognition. The results are discussed in terms of a sequential model of information processing involving modality-specific short-term memory and material-specific long-term retention.

Performance on the Seashore subtests, Tonal Memory and Timbre, were measured for male musically naive subjects with left-handed family members (FLH) and whose without (non-FLH). Despite the fact that FLH correlates with certain visuo-spatial deficits, FLH subjects were significantly superior on Timbre and marginally superior on Tonal Memory to their non-FLH controls. Thus spatial skills and musical abilities, in males with no musical training, both putatively right hemisphere based, are affected differently by a variable said to indicated diminished cerebral specialization.

This study assessed the diagnostic utility of the Seashore Tonal Memory Test in detecting and localizing cerebral lesions. A group of 238 subjects with focal or diffuse cerebral lesions and a group of 112 normal comparison subjects were administered the Seashore Tonal Memory Test and the Halstead-Reitan Battery. All brain-damaged subgroups did significantly worse than the normal group on the Tonal Memory Test. Patients with right-hemisphere lesions were more impaired on this test than were those with left-hemisphere lesions. In contrast, Seashore Rhythm Test scores were not significantly different for groups with right- versus left-hemisphere lesions. Tonal Memory performance was not found to be related to more precise location of structural lesions within the right hemisphere. Step-wise discriminate function analyses indicated that the Tonal Memory Test adds to the Halstead-Reitan Battery in discriminating left-hemisphere from right-hemisphere lesions and that, for this purpose, it was a better discriminator than all but one of the individual tests currently in the battery.

In two studies, groups of children with a wide range of reading ability and including a high proportion of poor readers were given Bentley's musical ability battery. Scores on tonal memory and chord analysis were related significantly to reading age with chronological age and IQ partialled out. The implications of these findings for views about component skills involved in reading and listening to music are discussed.

IN 1919 THE FIRST standardized group musical aptitude test, the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent} was published. This battery, in its latest revised form (Seashore, 1960), is comprised of six subtests which measure basic auditory sensory discrimination. According to the test author (Seashore, 1938), "everything that is rendered as music or heard as music may be expressed in terms of the concepts of the sound wave." Pitch, Loudness, Rhythm, Time, Timbre} and Tonal Memory are tested by requiring subjects to compare a pair or short series of tones which are produced on a beat-frequency oscillator (except on the Tonal Memory subtest). Because these subtests are supposedly void of the interaction of melody, rhythm, and musical expression, music psychologists (Mursell, 1937) have described and condemned the battery as being "atomistic" and unmusically-oriented. Specifically, the "omnibus" group, antagonists of the Seashore approach, believe that musicality consists of more than just the ability to discriminate audio-acoustical differences in the sound wave. Further, these music psychologists, many of whom are European (Lowery, 1940; and Mainwaring, 1947), argue that musical aptitude is not compnsed of separate abilities, but rather, that it is one general ability. They contend that a musical instrument should be used as the medium for stating music test items and that the content of each item should, in and of itself, have "musical meaning." The comparatively new Musical Aptitude Profile (Gordon, 1965) has been described as an eclectic test because both preference and nonpreference subtests constitute the test battery and also because, while the content of the test items is musical and is performed by professional musicians, the battery does, nevertheless, provide for the evaluation of seven postulated dimensions of musical aptitude. The musical dimensions measured by this standardized group test are classiSed into three main divisions: Tonal Imagery, Rhythm Imagery, and Musical Sensitivity. Two separate subtests are provided for each of the nonpreference tests: Melody and Harmony for Tonal Imagery, and Tempo and Meter for

*Recommended by Knight Dunlap, and received for publication by Carl Murchison of the Editorial Board, March 14, 1927.

The Measures of lMusical Abilities, a musical aptitude test battery designed especially for use with children of elementary school age, was first published in 1966. It was designed and developed by Arnold Bentley at the University of Reading, England, and consists of four separate tests: Pitch Discrimination, Tonal Memory, Chord Analysis, and Rhythmic Memory. The battery does not purport to measure all of the attributes that may comprise musical aptitude, but rather is designed to deal only with "the investigation of such abilities as are basic and essential to progress in active music-makirlg as vocalist and instrumentalist-i.e., to the performance of music.''l Bentley presents the following assumptions as the rationale upon which the tests are based: 1. The most elemental form of music is the melodic phrase, or figure, which comprises tonal configurations within a rhythmic framework. 2. Apprehension (perception) of melody is impossible without the ability to recall, in detail, sounds that have already been heard, and this depends upon the ability to apprehend the constituent factors of melody-i.e., pitch and time. 3. Finer than semitone pitch discrimination is essential in singing and in all instrumental playing, except at the keyboard, in order to achieve the necessary good intonation. 4. Concurrent sounds (chords) are not fundamental to melody; therefore, it is necessary for the singer or monophonic instrumen

ciently measure musical aptitude. Both groups, however, have been critical of the current status of musical aptitude testing. In number, scope, and technical refinements the testing of aptitude in music has lagged far behind other aptitude tests.1 An examination of currently published aptitude tests indicates that the constructors of those tests, in general, agree that musical aptitude can best be assessed by measuring such functions as the sense of pitch, the sense of tonal memory, the sense of rhythm, the sense of time, and the sense of intensity. Anastasi has stated: "The content

(1946). The Significance of Tonal Memory for Musicality. The Journal of General Psychology: Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 3-15.

Measures of pitch discrimination and tonal memory, subtests of the Seashore Measures of Musical Talents, were administered to 30 adult patients with hyper-functional voice disorders and to 30 matched adult control subjects. No significant differences were found between the two matched groups on either the pitch discrimination or the tonal memory subtests. It does appear, however, that some individual voice patients, similar to individuals in the normal population, demonstrate severe difficulty in making a pitch discrimination or remembering a tonal sequence.

The Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS) has received considerable attention in the literature in relation to personality correlates (Farber & Spence, 1953), learning situations (Spence & Taylor, 1952), and classical conditioning (Spence & Taylor, 1951). In a study relating the TMAS to psychometric performance (Pickrel, 1958), results demonstrated a parallel between psychometric measures and some types of variables studied in experimental laboratories. It has been shown (Montague, 1953) that Ss with high TMAS scores perform significantly better than Ss with low TMAS scores on tasks of moderate difficulty level while with more difficult tasks the reverse relation is found. The inferior performance of Ss with low TMAS scores on tasks of moderate difficulty has been attributed by one invescigacor (Romanow, 1958) to a careless inattentive attitude deriving from low involvement which results in increased errors. The inferior performance of the Ss with high TMAS scores on complex casks may arise from the characteristics of the task in that competing response tendencies tend to attenuate the performance of anxious Ss (Pickrel, 1958). In relation to his conception of anxiety, Eysenck (1947) suggests rhac neurotic Ss may do poorly in dark vision tasks as a result of a fear of the dark. Scofield and Rankin (1962) find that high TMAS score Ss do more poorly than the low TMAS score Ss on a difficult task of visual acuity under conditions of both high and low illumination. No significant illurn~nation effect was found for either group. There is a lack of information in the literature pertaining co the relationship between TMAS scores and performance on a broad group of auditory tests given to the same Ss. The purpose of this research is to determine whether the findings from experimental and psychometric researches hold for auditory measures. METHOD Memures.-The Seashore Measures of Musical Talents (SMMT, 1960) was selected to investigate che relations between six auditory discriminations and manifest anxiety as measured by the TMAS. The SMMT was chosen because it provided standardized convenient and reproducible measures of auditory acuity, i.e., the SMMT measures pitch, loudness, rhythm, time, timbre, and tonal memory with reliability coefficients of 34, .74, 64, .71, .68, and .83, respectively. The test was administered from a new disk recording following all procedures listed in the manual. The stimuli were presented to three groups of 40 Ss through a high fidelity 40-w amplifier, using four speakers which faced Ss. The test was 'Portions of this research were supported by the Research Foundation, Oklahoma State University.