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We report on the low-energy electron and fast neutron irradiated 4H-SiC studied by deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and Laplace DLTS. Irradiations introduced two defects, E c −0.4 eV and E c −0.7 eV. They were previously assigned to carbon interstitial (Ci) labeled as EH1/3 and silicon-vacancy (V Si) labeled as S1/2, for the low-energy electron and fast neutron irradiation, respectively. This work demonstrates how Laplace DLTS can be used as a useful tool for distinguishing the EH1 and S1 defects. We show that EH1 consists of a single emission line arising from the Ci(h), while S1 has two emission lines arising from the V Si(h) and V Si(k) lattice sites.

Pure and Al-doped (3 at.%) ZnO nanorods were prepared by two-step synthesis. In the first step, ZnO thin films were deposited on silicon wafers by spin coating; then, ZnO nanorods (NR) and Al-doped ZnO NR were grown using a chemical bath method. The structural properties of zincite nanorods were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and corroborated well with the morphologic properties obtained by field-emission gun scanning electron microscopy (FEG SEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Morphology results revealed a minute change in the nanorod geometry upon doping, which was also visible by Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM). KPFM also showed preliminary electrical properties. Detailed electrical characterization of pure and Al-doped ZnO NR was conducted by temperature-dependent current–voltage (I–V) measurements on Au/(Al)ZnO NR/n-Si junctions. It was shown that Al doping increases the conductivity of ZnO NR by an order of magnitude. The I–V characteristics of pure and Al-doped ZnO NR followed the ohmic regime for lower voltages, whereas, for the higher voltages, significant changes in electric conduction mechanisms were detected and ascribed to Al-doping. In conclusion, for future applications, one should consider the possible influence of the geometry change of (Al)ZnO NRs on their overall electric transport properties.

In the last two decades we have assisted to a rush towards finding a 3He-replacing technology capable of detecting neutrons emitted from fissile isotopes. The demand stems from applications like nuclear war-head screening or preventing illicit traffic of radiological materials. Semiconductor detectors stand among the strongest contenders, particularly those based on materials possessing a wide band gap like silicon carbide (SiC). We review the workings of SiC-based neutron detectors, along with several issues related to material properties, device fabrication and testing. The paper summarizes the experimental and theoretical work carried out within the E-SiCure project (Engineering Silicon Carbide for Border and Port Security), co-funded by the NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme. The main goal was the development of technologies to support the fabrication of radiation-hard silicon carbide detectors of special nuclear materials. Among the achievements, we have the development of successful Schottky barrier based detectors and the identification of the main carrier life-time-limiting defects in the SiC active areas, either already present in pristine devices or introduced upon exposure to radiation fields. The physical processes involved in neutron detection are described. Material properties as well as issues related to epitaxial growth and device fabrication are addressed. The presence of defects in as-grown material, as well as those introduced by ionizing radiation are reported. We finally describe several experiments carried out at the Jozef Stefan Institute TRIGA Mark II reactor (Ljubljana, Slovenia), where a set of SiC-based neutron detectors were tested, some of which being equipped with a thermal neutron converter layer. We show that despite the existence of large room for improvement, Schottky barrier diodes based on state-of-the-art 4 H -SiC are closing the gap between gas- and semiconductor-based detectors regarding their sensitivity.

We report the response of newly designed 4H-SiC Schottky barrier diode (SBD) detector prototype to alpha and gamma radiation. We studied detectors of three different active area sizes (1 &times, 1, 2 &times, 2 and 3 &times, 3 mm2), while all detectors had the same 4H-SiC epi-layer thickness of approximately &micro, m, sufficient to stop alpha particles up to 6.8 MeV, which have been used in this study. The detector response to the various alpha emitters in the 3.27 MeV to 8.79 MeV energy range clearly demonstrates the excellent linear response to alpha emissions of the detectors with the increasing active area. The detector response in gamma radiation field of Co-60 and Cs-137 sources showed a linear response to air kerma and to different air kerma rates as well, up to 4.49 Gy/h. The detector response is not in saturation for the dose rates lower than 15.3 mGy/min and that its measuring range for gamma radiation with energies of 662 keV, 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV is from 0.5 mGy/h&ndash, 917 mGy/h. No changes to electrical properties of pristine and tested 4H-SiC SBD detectors, supported by a negligible change in carbon vacancy defect density and no creation of other deep levels, demonstrates the radiation hardness of these 4H-SiC detectors.

Sulfur-doped TiO2 (S-TiO2) composites with reduced graphene oxide (rGO), wt. % of rGO equal to 0.5%, 2.75%, and 5.0%, were prepared by a one-pot solvothermal procedure. The aim was to improve photocatalytic performance in comparison to TiO2 under simulated solar irradiation for the treatment of diclofenac (DCF) in aqueous medium. The obtained composites were characterized for physical-chemical properties using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffractograms (XRD), Raman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM)/energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), Brauner Emmett Teller (BET), and photoluminescence (PL) analyses, indicating successful sulfur doping and inclusion of rGO. Sulfur doping and rGO have successfully led to a decrease in photogenerated charge recombination. However, both antagonistic and synergistic effects toward DCF treatment were observed, with the latter being brought forward by higher wt.% rGO. The composite with 5.0 wt.% rGO has shown the highest DCF conversion at pH 4 compared to that obtained by pristine TiO2, despite lower DCF adsorption during the initial dark period. The expected positive effects of both sulfur doping and rGO on charge recombination were found to be limited because of the subpar interphase contact with the composite and incomplete reduction of the GO precursor. Consequent unfavorable interactions between rGO and DCF negatively influenced the activity of the studied S-TiO2/rGO photocatalyst under simulated solar irradiation.

Sulfur-doped TiO2 (S-TiO2) composites with reduced graphene oxide (rGO), wt. % of rGO equal to 0.5%, 2.75%, and 5.0%, were prepared by a one-pot solvothermal procedure. The aim was to improve photocatalytic performance in comparison to TiO2 under simulated solar irradiation for the treatment of diclofenac (DCF) in aqueous medium. The obtained composites were characterized for physical-chemical properties using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffractograms (XRD), Raman, scanning electron microscopy (SEM)/energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), Brauner Emmett Teller (BET), and photoluminescence (PL) analyses, indicating successful sulfur doping and inclusion of rGO. Sulfur doping and rGO have successfully led to a decrease in photogenerated charge recombination. However, both antagonistic and synergistic effects toward DCF treatment were observed, with the latter being brought forward by higher wt.% rGO. The composite with 5.0 wt.% rGO has shown the highest DCF conversion at pH 4 compared to that obtained by pristine TiO2, despite lower DCF adsorption during the initial dark period. The expected positive effects of both sulfur doping and rGO on charge recombination were found to be limited because of the subpar interphase contact with the composite and incomplete reduction of the GO precursor. Consequent unfavorable interactions between rGO and DCF negatively influenced the activity of the studied S-TiO2/rGO photocatalyst under simulated solar irradiation.

Developing new state-of-the-art, low-cost and radiation hard detectors is an extremely difficult challenge which can be tackled only by a multisciplinary group of scientists and engineers from various fields having access to different infrastructure.

Deep level defects created by implantation of light-helium and medium heavy carbon ions in the single ion regime and neutron irradiation in n-type 4H-SiC are characterized by the DLTS technique. Two deep levels with energies 0.4 eV (EH1) and 0.7 eV (EH3) below the conduction band minimum are created in either ion implanted and neutron irradiated material beside carbon vacancies (Z1/2). In our study, we analyze components of EH1 and EH3 deep levels based on their concentration depth profiles, in addition to (&minus, 3/=) and (=/&minus, ) transition levels of silicon vacancy. A higher EH3 deep level concentration compared to the EH1 deep level concentration and a slight shift of the EH3 concentration depth profile to larger depths indicate that an additional deep level contributes to the DLTS signal of the EH3 deep level, most probably the defect complex involving interstitials. We report on the introduction of metastable M-center by light/medium heavy ion implantation and neutron irradiation, previously reported in cases of proton and electron irradiation. Contribution of M-center to the EH1 concentration profile is presented.

We report on influence of neutron radiation on majority and minority carrier traps in n-type 4H-SiC. Together with the increase of the well-known carbon vacancy (VC) majority carrier related trap, neutron irradiation has introduced two deep traps, labeled as EH1 and EH3 with the activation energies for electron emission estimated as 0.4 and 0.7 eV bellow the conduction band, respectively. Based on Laplace deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) results, we have assigned EH1 trap to silicon vacancy (VSi). Two minority carrier traps labelled as B and D-center were detected by minority transient spectroscopy (MCTS) and assigned to substitutional boron BSi and BC, respectively. Activation energies for hole emission for B and D-center are estimated as 0.27 and 0.60 eV above the valence band, respectively. We have identified two emission lines for D-center by Laplace-MCTS measurements and assigned them to BC sitting at hexagonal (−h) and cubic (−k) lattice sites.

We present a study of electrically active radiation-induced defects formed in 4H-SiC epitaxial layers following irradiation with fast neutrons, as well as 600 keV H+and 2 MeV He++ion implantations. We also look at electron emission energies and mechanisms of the carbon vacancy in 4H-SiC by means of first-principles modelling. Combining the relative stability of carbon vacancies at different sites with the relative amplitude of the observed Laplace-DLTS peaks, we were able to connect Z1and Z2to emissions from double negatively charged carbon vacancies located at theh- andk-sites, respectively.

We report on a bistable defect known as M- center, here introduced in n-type 4H-SiC by 2 MeV He ion implantation. Deep levels of the M-center are investigated by means of junction spectroscopy techniques, namely, deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and isothermal DLTS. In addition to previously reported three deep levels arising from the M-center (labeled as M1, M2, and M3), we provide direct evidence on the existence of a fourth transition (labeled as M4) with an activation energy of 0.86 eV. Activation energies and apparent capture cross sections for all four metastable defects are determined. From first-principles calculations, it is shown that the observed features of the M-center, including the charge state character, transition levels, bi-stability dynamics, and annealing, are all accounted for by a carbon self-interstitial.

The main goal of this project is to demonstrate the advantages of sensor integration on a remotely controlled robotic platform for increasing operator safety and improving the classification of explosive targets. This is accomplished by combining the imaging provided by radars and an optoelectronic sensor, a time-of-flight (ToF) depth camera. An additional aim is to demonstrate the operability and practicality of the system in a field with landmine simulants having plastic cases.

We present preliminary results on minority carrier traps in as-grown n-type 4H&ndash, SiC Schottky barrier diodes. The minority carrier traps are crucial for charge trapping and recombination processes. In this study, minority carrier traps were investigated by means of minority carrier transient spectroscopy (MCTS) and high-resolution Laplace-MCTS measurements. A single minority carrier trap with its energy level position at Ev + 0.28 eV was detected and assigned to boron-related defects.

In 2016, the ”E-SiCure” project (standing for Engineering Silicon Carbide for Border and Port Security), funded by the NATO Science for Peace and Security Programme, was launched. The main objective is to combine theoretical, experimental and applied research towards the development of radiation-hard SiC-based detectors of special nuclear materials (SNM), and by that way, to enhance border and port security barriers. Along the plan, material modification processes are employed firstly to study, and secondly to manipulate the most severe electrically active defects (which trap or annihilate free charge carriers), by specific ion implantation and defect engineering. This paper gives an overview of the experimental activities performed at the JSI TRIGA reactor in the framework of the E-SiCure project. Initial activities were aimed at obtaining information on the radiation hardness of SiC and at the study of the energy levels of the defects induced by neutron irradiation. Several Schottky barrier diodes were fabricated out of nitrogen-doped epitaxial grown 4H-SiC, and irradiated under Cd filters in the PT irradiation channel in the JSI TRIGA reactor with varying neutron fluence levels. Neutron-induced defects in the material were studied using temperature dependent current-voltage (I-V), capacitance-voltage (C-V) and Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements. Our prototype neutron detectors are configured as 4H-SiC-based Schottky barrier diodes for detection of secondary charged particles (tritons, alphas and lithium atoms) which are result of thermal neutron conversion process in 10B and 6LiF layers above the surface of the 4H-SiC diodes. For field testing of neutron detectors using a broad beam of reactor neutrons we designed a standalone prototype detection system consisting of a preamplifier, shaping amplifier and a multichannel analyser operated by a laptop computer. The reverse bias for the detector diode and the power to electronic system are provided by a standalone battery-powered voltage source. The detector functionality was established through measurements using an 241Am alpha particle source. Two dedicated experimental campaigns were performed at the JSI TRIGA reactor. The registered pulse height spectra from the detectors, using both 10B and 6LiF neutron converting layers, clearly demonstrated the neutron detection abilities of the SiC detector prototypes.

We provide direct evidence that the broad Z$_{1/2}$ peak, commonly observed by conventional DLTS in as-grown and at high concentrations in radiation damaged $4H$-SiC, has two components, namely Z$_{1}$ and Z$_{2}$, with activation energies for electron emission of 0.59 and 0.67~eV, respectively. We assign these components to $\mathrm{Z}_{1/2}^{=}\rightarrow\mathrm{Z}_{1/2}^{-}+e^{-}\rightarrow\mathrm{Z}_{1/2}^{0}+2e^{-}$ transition sequences from negative-$U$ ordered acceptor levels of carbon vacancy (V$_{\mathrm{C}}$) defects at hexagonal/pseudo-cubic sites, respectively. By employing short filling pulses at lower temperatures, we were able to characterize the first acceptor level of V$_{\mathrm{C}}$ on both sub-lattice sites. Activation energies for electron emission of 0.48 and 0.41~eV were determined for $\mathrm{Z}_{1}(-/0)$ and $\mathrm{Z}_{2}(-/0)$ transitions, respectively. Based on trap filling kinetics and capture barrier calculations, we investigated the two-step transitions from neutral to doubly negatively charged Z$_{1}$ and Z$_{2}$. Positions of the first and second acceptor levels of V$_{\mathrm{C}}$ at both lattice sites, as well as $(=\!/0)$ occupancy levels were derived from the analysis of the emission and capture data.

We present results from combined Laplace-Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (Laplace-DLTS) and density functional theory studies of the carbon vacancy (VC) in n-type 4H-SiC. Using Laplace-DLTS, we were able to distinguish two previously unresolved sub-lattice-inequivalent emissions, causing the broad Z1/2 peak at 290 K that is commonly observed by conventional DLTS in n-type 4H-SiC. This peak has two components with activation energies for electron emission of 0.58 eV and 0.65 eV. We compared these results with the acceptor levels of VC obtained by means of hybrid density functional supercell calculations. The calculations support the assignment of the Z1/2 signal to a superposition of emission peaks from double negatively charged VC defects. Taking into account the measured and calculated energy levels, the calculated relative stability of VC in hexagonal (h) and cubic (k) lattice sites, as well as the observed relative amplitude of the Laplace- DLTS peaks, we assign Z1 and Z2 to VC(h) and VC(k), respectively. We also present the preliminary results of DLTS and Laplace-DLTS measurements on deep level defects (ET1 and ET2) introduced by fast neutron irradiation and He ion implantation in 4H-SiC. The origin of ET1 and ET2 is still unclear.

We characterized intrinsic deep level defects created in ion collision cascades which were produced by patterned implantation of single accelerated 2.0 MeV He and 600 keV H ions into n-type 4H-SiC epitaxial layers using a fast- scanning reduced-rate ion microbeam. The initial deep level transient spectroscopy measurement performed on as-grown material in the temperature range 150–700 K revealed the presence of only two electron traps, Z 1/2 (0.64 eV) and EH6/7 (1.84 eV) assigned to the two different charge state transitions of the isolated carbon vacancy, V C (=/0) and (0/+). C–V measurements of as-implanted samples revealed the increasing free carrier removal with larger ion fluence values, in particular at depth corresponding to a vicinity of the end of an ion range. The first DLTS measurement of as-implanted samples revealed formation of additional deep level defects labelled as ET1 (0.35 eV), ET2 (0.65 eV) and EH3 (1.06 eV) which were clearly distinguished from the presence of isolated carbon vacancies (Z 1/2 and EH6/7 defects) in increased concentrations after implantations either by He or H ions. Repeated C–V measurements showed that a partial net free-carrier recovery occurred in as- implanted samples upon the low-temperature annealing following the first DLTS measurement. The second DLTS measurement revealed the almost complete removal of ET2 defect and the partial removal of EH3 defect, while the concentrations of Z 1/2 and EH6/7 defects increased, due to the low temperature annealing up to 700 K accomplished during the first temperature scan. We concluded that the ET2 and EH3 defects: (i) act as majority carrier removal traps, (ii) exhibit a low thermal stability and (iii) can be related to the simple point-like defects introduced by light ion implantation, namely interstitials and/or complex of interstitials and vacancies in both carbon and silicon sub- lattices.

This paper presents the characterization of the electrically active defects created by epithermal and fast neutrons in epitaxial n-type 4H-SiC material using Laplace Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (Laplace DLTS). While the deep level related to the carbon vacancy has been observed in as-grown material, we observed that epithermal and fast neutron irradiation introduces additional simple defect complexes, with energy levels at EC – 0.40 eV and EC – 0.70 eV.

The list of semiconductor materials with spectroscopically fingerprinted self-interstitials is very short. The M-center in 4H-SiC, a bistable defect responsible for a family of electron traps, has been deprived of a model which could unveil its real importance for almost two decades. Using advanced first-principles calculations and junction spectroscopy, we demonstrate that the properties of M, including bistability, annealing, reconfiguration kinetics, and electronic levels, match those of the carbon self-interstitial.