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A parent's immigration status influences how a child grows up. That basic finding is grounded in the broad mainstream of current research on childhood development, which has concluded that parental factors can be powerful determinants of their offspring's well being all the way into adulthood. As this report shows, a parent's immigration status matters a great deal. In recent years a great deal of research has examined the ways that having a parent who is an unauthorized migrant influences a child's life. As reviewed in this report, different researchers from different scholarly fields using different data and methodologies have concluded time and again that a parent's unauthorized status imposes a severe penalty on their children. The interrelated findings are most important in weighing the importance of research to the current policy debate. The negative consequences are multiple and severe. Fear of deportation is an important mechanism for inflicting those penalties, and the harm to children can be reversed when the fear of deportation is lifted. A parent's unauthorized status traps a child in a shadowed labyrinth of insecurity and confusion that proceeds from being born and raised American and yet harboring a sense of not belonging. This report provides a review of major findings from dozens of separate studies that have explored those effects in various dimensions of childhood. Available research shows that granting legal status to parents can reverse the harm imposed on their children. Research cited in this report points to the mechanisms by which a parent's legalization can bring improvement in children's life trajectories. Most simply, legalization eliminates the fear and anxiety that can pervade households threatened with the deportation of a parent. Like removing a hobble, this allows a child to ascend developmentally, psychologically and in educational attainment. In addition to the psychological effects, legalization removes the barriers to economic opportunity and social integration that arise from unauthorized status. Even a temporary work permit can set in motion a process that brings economic benefits first to the immigrants, in the form of higher wages, and on to the public sector, in the form of higher tax revenue. It then benefits the nation as a whole, in the form of a more productive labor force. Permission to work of the sort envisioned in the president's executive action provides unauthorized immigrants with a shield against workplace exploitation and the freedom to move across the labor market to find work that best suits their skills. Only one assertion in the immigration policy debate draws unanimous agreement: the endlessly repeated statement that the system is broken. A second assertion worthy of the same accord is that the U.S. citizen children of unauthorized migrants are the most innocent of the many victims of that broken system. They constitute a distinct class of individuals who are defined not by how they have violated regulations but by the fact that the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees them citizenship, due process, and equal protection.

The goal of this brief, prepared jointly by the National Hispanic Caucus of State Legislators (NHCSL) and the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI), is to bring to policy saliency--at the national, state, and local levels--to the educational crisis caused by the under-achievement of Hispanic youth. Specifically, this report addresses two issues of particular relevance to the Hispanic community: English language acquisition and middle school preparation. The targeted audience for this policy brief is stakeholders in the education of Latino youth, specifically policymakers and legislators across the nation. The report reviews the relevant research on the English language acquisition of ELLs and middle school preparation of Hispanic youth, then recommends some key policy options for policymakers to consider. Although English language acquisition and middle school preparation are the key issues addressed in this policy brief, there are, other issues-ranging from pre-K to graduate and professional education-that must be addressed in efforts to improve overall educational outcomes of Hispanic youth. If the nation is to respond to the economic and political challenges of the 21st century, confronting and solving the issues of Hispanic undereducation will be an integral component for overall national educational success in the coming decades.

This new study by the Tomás Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) demonstrates that English Language Learners (ELLs) who learn English at school can do better academically than native English speakers, and that the window for mastering the English language is wider than previously thought. Typically ELLs perform at lower levels than their English-fluent peers, according to past studies, which also have suggested a variety of causes and possible remedies. This recent TRPI research simply spotlights the critical need for ongoing language education in our schools--despite the present policy debate about the best way to do it. This study was based on an analysis of complete official records for the 28,714 students who were in the 6th grade in 1999 in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD). The study revealed that even after ruling out other factors, students who gained sufficient English skills to be moved from English learning classes to mainstream English classes demonstrated improved performance. Also, the reclassification of students as English proficient was associated with improved performance beyond the middle school years, and this relationship was slightly larger for foreign-born English learners than native-born English learners. It is worth noting that a substantial proportion of students in the study began the English-learning process in kindergarten, yet in eight years of schooling never managed to be moved into mainstream English classes. The results of this investigation into the nation's second largest school district are critical for the education and retention of non-English speakers throughout school systems in the United States. The surprising result is that students who are reclassified even as late as eighth grade perform at much the same level on measurable high school outcomes as those who are reclassified earlier, while controlling for previous academic performance. Indeed, reclassification at any point during the middle school years was associated with improved likelihood that a student would stay in the 9th grade, pass the California exit exam (CAHSEE), take an Advanced Placement (AP) course in high school, or stay in high school. Among educators, finding the best path to long-term education and retention of ELL students is a top concern. This TRPI study clearly demonstrates the need for stepped up English language learning efforts targeting both native-born and foreign-born populations.

English language learners (ELLs) have typically performed worse academically when compared to their English-fluent peers. Studies point to a number of possible causes for ELLs' poor performance, and offer differing recommendations for how best to educate them. This study by the Tomas Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) demonstrates the significant value of ELLs' transitioning into mainstream English classrooms, and emphasizes the need for action despite the ongoing policy debate over best practices for educating ELLs. The TRPI study is based on analysis of official records provided by the Los Angeles Unified School District for all non-special education students who were in 6th grade in 1999 (N=28,714). This study finds that even after accounting for other important factors, obtaining sufficient English skills to transfer from English learning classes to mainstream English classes (herein referred to as reclassification) results in improved academic performance. A review of the current rates of reclassification for LAUSD schools suggests that the average annual rate of reclassification has not changed significantly in the last decade, suggesting that there are still a large number of ELLs missing out on the academic benefits associated with reclassification. (Contains 3 figures.) [The California Community Foundation provided financial support to conduct the data analysis.]

Although the United States has the best innovation ecosystem in the world, according to the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST), American students have weak math and science skills compared with those in the rest of the world. Even students at the top tier pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) at lower rates in the U.S. than in other countries, and there is a significant global shift in technical and scientific talent from the U.S. to Asia, which will have a corresponding impact on the research and development (R&D) global infrastructure. The number of U.S.-trained STEM professionals is inadequate to meet the nation's needs, given current pipeline and participation rates. Additionally, the diversity in race/ethnicity of the national population is not reflected in the population of STEM professionals. Demographic trends reinforce this shortage and indicate that an increasing number of STEM professionals will soon be retiring. Without counteracting factors, the estimated ratio of 22-year-olds who will earn scientific and engineering bachelor's degrees and could enter a STEM profession in the United States will continue to drop, and the flow of international students, scientists, and engineers to the U.S. has decreased as other countries recognize the economic importance of a technical workforce and implement policies that entice their citizens to remain at home. The authors advocate the need to encourage more U.S.-based individuals to consider STEM-related fields, an emergent need that presents an opportunity for the growing population of Latinos in the U.S. This report synthesizes existing literature regarding Latino participation in STEM-related fields, describes trends in degree attainment and employment levels for these fields, and chronicles obstacles and opportunities affecting Latino representation. (Contains 2 footnotes.) [For companion qualitative study, see ED502064.]

Discrepancies in education outcomes between Latinos and their non-Hispanic white counterparts have been previously observed and analyzed, yet the problem still persists. This study aims to give a voice to key stakeholders who can inform policymakers, programs and foundations on how to employ effective strategies to increase Latino participation in the professions of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). The responses from these stakeholders reinforce the existence of the various barriers and challenges outlined in the report, as well as the solutions recommended to empower and prepare Latino students, including the importance of mentoring, teacher preparation, and parental support. This is a qualitative study that seeks to understand the "why and the how" of Latino participation in STEM careers. This Tomas Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) study has the following specific objectives: (1) To draw lessons learned from the challenges and opportunities faced by successful Latinos in STEM careers; (2) To gauge the future need for STEM professionals which should inform how best to prepare Latinos for careers in the STEM sectors; (3) To better prepare Latino students academically as well as motivate them to choose and complete STEM degrees; and (4) To determine next steps and ensure collaboration among the major stakeholders. (Contains 1 footnote.) [For companion literature review, see ED502063.]

The purpose of this Tomas Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) report is twofold: to provide an analysis of the enrollment trends for African American and Latino students among graduate professional programs in the fields of medicine, business, law, and public affairs, and to present other relevant data pertaining to African American and Latino students in graduate education. For this study, professional schools are defined as those requiring the baccalaureate for admission. These program fields are the ones that have prepared and continue to prepare elite leadership at both the state and national levels across a multitude of sectors. In addition, the report presents an overview of professional programs' abilities to attract Latino and African American students during the aftermath of anti-affirmative action policies. The data are, for the most part, presented by race and ethnicity, and based on the most recent publicly available information from government, private, and higher education institutions in the United States. The report is divided into two parts. The first section provides an overview of affirmative action policy and court cases. The second part analyzes the relationship between affirmative action and nationwide enrollment trends of African American and Latino students among the four selected professional programs: medicine, law, business, and public affairs. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Latino population in the United States comprises approximately 35,305,818 people, or 12.5% of the total population. It is primarily concentrated in Arizona, California, Florida, Illinois, New Jersey, New York, and Texas, states that contain populations of one million or more. Combined, these states have 27,129,590 Latinos, or 77% of the total Latino population (see Table 1). The African American population, which comprises 34,658,190 or 12.3% of the total United States population, is heavily concentrated in seventeen states each coining one million or more African Americans. Combined, these states account for approximately 28,757,385 African Americans or 83% of the total African American population (see Table 2). Together, African Americans and Latinos account for approximately 25% of the total U.S. population, however they only represent 11.7% of medical doctor degrees (M.D.), 13% of law degrees (J.D.), 13% of business degrees (MBA), and 23% of public affairs (M.A.) degrees conferred during the 2002-2003 academic year (see Table 3). (Contains 15 tables and 11 figures.

The Latino community has been characterized by low high school graduation rates, low college completion rates and substandard schooling conditions. As schools and policymakers seek to improve the educational conditions of Latinos, parental influence in the form of school involvement is assumed to play some role in shaping students' educational experiences. Despite this national interest in parental involvement, little research has been conducted on what constitutes parental involvement in the middle and high school years. Additionally, stakeholders hold diverse definitions of parental involvement, and little attention has been paid to how Latino parents, specifically, define parental involvement. The growing national interest in parental involvement and lack of research on Latino perceptions on the issue motivated the Tomas Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) to examine what constitutes parental involvement for schools, Latino students, and Latino parents. In conducting this study, the Institute examined: (1) Latino parents' perceptions of their participation in the education of their children; (2) Schools' and teachers' expectations of parental involvement; (3) Programmatic initiatives addressing parental involvement in education; and (4) Latino students' perceptions of the role of parental involvement in their education. Findings indicate that divergent definitions and perceptions of parental involvement in education exist among different stakeholders and that schools lack clear organizational goals and objectives on how best to involve parents in the schools. These insights can inform discussions about how schools can best acknowledge, encourage, and increase parental involvement in schools. School administrators, school board members, corporate school partners, policymakers, outreach programs, parent leaders, and teachers may find study results useful as they seek to increase parental involvement in schools. A list of resources for further reading is included.(Contains 4 footnotes and 2 tables.)

Previous research by The Tomas Rivera Policy Institute (TRPI) has demonstrated that extensive college financial aid opportunities are available in the form of scholarships, grants, and loans; yet many Latino students and their parents are not aware that numerous grants and scholarships are earmarked especially for them. This report provides insight into the reasons that Latino families are unlikely to take advantage of the many free monies that exist, and various recommendations for change. In the spring of 2005, TRPI examined the information dissemination and application procedures of organizations that provide scholarship opportunities to college-bound Southern California Latino students. The team conducted an Internet survey to identify organizations where Southern California Latino students and parents could receive information about, or apply for, college scholarships and grants. Resources were divided into two groups: information-providing organizations and scholarship-granting organizations and interviews were conducted with representatives from each type. Primary findings suggest that organizations offer a variety of financial aid and career information to Latino and other minority students, but information is not provided or disseminated in a manner that most effectively reaches Latino students and parents. Information on websites may be outdated, in English only, and/or not actively disseminated to the communities who need it most. Findings also demonstrate that wide variations in scholarship information and application requirements pose challenges to parents and students who are trying to navigate the application process. Differing deadlines and requirements make the process complex and often overwhelming for both the students who apply, and the scholarship-granting organizations that must process the applications. TRPI posits that if information about financial opportunities for Latino students was centralized, and the application process streamlined, information about available college monies for Latino students would be easier to promote and digest, resulting in more Latino students applying for a greater amount of financial aid. The following recommendations are presented for Information-providing Organizations: (1) Ensure that all online scholarship information is current and verified or updated regularly, and post a "last updated" date on the website; (2) Provide online information in a bilingual format, or develop a summary information sheet in Spanish, so that students may print out information for their parents; (3) Create registration systems whereby students can register to receive "e-alerts," alerting them of upcoming deadlines, reminders, and news; (4) Actively disseminate hard copies of online data to postsecondary institutions of higher education in Southern California that have high Latino student populations; and (5) Actively cultivate relationships with scholarship-granting organizations and high school counselors to facilitate communication between educators, parents, students, and funders. For Scholarship-granting Organizations, the following recommendations are made: (1) Coordinate with other scholarship-granting organizations to post the same basic information on the first page of the scholarship website so that deadlines and requirements can be easily compared and accessed; (2) Coordinate with other scholarship-granting organizations to develop one deadline that is a "universal scholarship deadline" so that students and parents can have a clear understanding of timelines; (3) Provide online information in a bilingual format, or develop a summary information sheet in Spanish, so that students may print out information for their parents.; (4) Create registration systems whereby students can register to receive "e-alerts," alerting them of upcoming deadlines, reminders, and news; (4) Coordinate with other scholarship-granting organizations to develop a standard template for application, eligibility, and documentation requirements; (5) Communicate with other scholarship-granting organizations, recognizing that an applicant who is not well-suited for one award may be an excellent candidate for another; (6) Allow for online applications; and (6) Coordinate with other scholarship-granting organizations to create one website where students can search for scholarships and apply, online, to multiple scholarships with one application. Three appendixes include: (1) Data and Methodology; (2) Information-Providing Organizations; and (3) Scholarship-Awarding Organizations. (Contains 11 footnotes, 1 figure and 1 table.) [Support for this publication was provided by The Walt Disney Company and Efrain Fuentes.]

In this follow-up study to "College Knowledge: What Latino Parents Need to Know and Why They Don't Know It," [see ED469295], the Tomas Rivera Policy Institute examines how postsecondary institutions are mobilizing to address the need for college information among Latino parents. The primary objective of "Reaching Higher Ground" is to profile in operational detail those programs that effectively provide parents with college preparatory information in order to better prepare their children for college admission and attendance. The report provides information about the mission, operations, development, marketing, recruitment, and evaluation process of these programs in order to help prospective program developers create similar ventures in their respective communities. A resource section is also provided with a list of the directors of the programs profiled as well as potential funding sources. The report highlights 10 outreach programs that have the following five characteristics in common: committed program champions; program evaluation; stable funding sources; cultural considerations; and successful partnerships. This report will be useful for school administrators wanting to develop similar outreach programs geared to Latino parents at their schools and for public and private sector enterprises interested in funding such programs. An appendix presents: Fiscal Year 2002 GEAR UP Awards. (Contains 5 footnotes.)

This document summarizes the results of a 15-minute survey that was administered to four hundred 18-24 year-old Latino youth in California to determine their perceptions of financial aid. Among the key findings were that (1) three out of four Latino young adults who did not attend college cited lack of financial aid as a factor in their decision not to attend; and (2) less than 20 percent of Latino young adults have an accurate perception of attendance costs at the University of California or California State University systems. [See policy brief at ED502067.]