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This study compared two goal-setting approaches found in the Precision Teaching literature, namely the minimum celeration line and the beat your personal best during the mathematical practice of three male students diagnosed with autism, aged 8-9. An adapted alternating treatments design with a control condition was embedded in a concurrent multiple baseline across participants design. Each approach was randomly allocated to either the multiplication/division (×÷) table of 18 or 19, while no approach was allocated to the ×÷14 table that acted as a control. Instruction utilized number families and consisted of (a) untimed practice, (b) frequency-building, (c) performance criteria, (d) graphing, and (e) a token economy. Upon practice completion, an assessment of maintenance, endurance, stability, and application (MESA) was conducted. Participants improved with both conditions and maintained their performance well, while improvements with the control condition were weak. The beat your personal best approach was highlighted as slightly more effective in terms of average performance and more efficient in terms of timings needed to achieve criterion. No differences were identified in terms of learning rate (i.e., celeration) or performance on the MESA. More research is warranted to identify which goal-setting procedure is more appropriate for students in special education.

Token reinforcement procedures are used to increase appropriate behavior (e.g., completion of instructional tasks) and decrease problem behavior (e.g., aggression) in a wide array of clinical contexts. Token exchange-production schedules, which specify the number of tokens that must be accrued to produce the exchange schedule, are important components of token reinforcement programs. For example, accumulated schedules require learners to "bank up" multiple tokens before they can be exchanged, whereas distributed schedules allow learners to exchange tokens for backup reinforcers after just a single token (or a comparatively smaller range of tokens) is earned. Emerging research suggests that individual preferences for these different arrangements varies and is affected by many variables, including increasing work requirements (e.g., reinforcement schedule thinning). In the current study, we demonstrated that preferences for these schedules was stable across increasing work requirements and demonstrated that non-preferred (accumulated) schedule arrangements may support appropriate behavior and decrease problem behavior, even with very lean token-production schedules. These results have implications for practitioners who use token-based interventions and conduct schedule thinning for escape-maintained behavior.

Problem-solving is a skill of fundamental importance for populations with developmental delays, and especially for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Training students with ASD to solve ill-defined problems is a challenging objective for educational and therapeutic teams. This is due to the myriad of unpredictable situations presented during the school day and the various responses, socially appropriate or inappropriate, that may be emitted to solve one's problem. The purpose of this paper is to present a systematic clinical behavioral program named the Problem Solver (PS) specifically designed to teach problem-solving to high-functioning students with ASD. The authors detail the three stages of the PS program (i.e., determining a set of problems and solutions for each student, skill acquisition and practice, and implementation of whole-class token economy). The authors conclude with recommendations for successful implementation in school settings.

Engaging students in higher education is a critical aspect of student learning (Barkley, 2009; Coates, 2005).Flipped classroom are being reported in the literature as a means to engage students in the learning process, compared to traditional lectures (O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015). However, flipped classrooms are difficult to implement without students taking an active role in the learning process (Long, Cummins, & Waugh, 2017). Token economies, which are widely used in primary school settings but rarely reported in higher educational settings, enable instructors to provide students with rewards to reinforce targeted student behaviors (Hine, Ardoin, & Call, 2018; McClurg & Morris, 2014), and may be useful in the flipped classroom model. In this mixed methods case study, the researchers collected survey and focus group data from 48 undergraduate students who attended a science course with a token economy to determine the students' perceptions of the token economy and satisfaction of the novel rewards offered. The findings indicated that over 90% of the students participated in the token economy and 74% of students indicated that the reward system reinforced the student behaviors necessary for an effective flipped classroom. The students also discussed how the token economy provided motivation and additional opportunities to master course content, decreased student anxiety, and enhanced the student-teacher relationship.

Token economies are a helpful, research-based tool for behavior intervention. However, the design and implementation process can be overwhelming. To address common challenges with token economy implementation, we describe the basic behavioral science behind a token economy, how to implement a token economy effectively, and how to avoid pitfalls along the way. We also provide advice on how to generalize token economies across settings and fade token economies, fostering a student's intrinsic motivation and making reinforcement more naturalistic.

The purpose of this study was to investigate Japanese college students' learning experiences during horse leading in field placements. The study was situated in the framework of andragogy theory and used an explanatory (holistic) case study design. Participants were six Japanese college students with no prior experience in learning how to lead horses at a public university. Data sources included face to face and online written interviews. A constant comparative method was adopted to interpret the data. Three emergent themes were established: (a) students' learning how to communicate with horses during horse leading, (b) students' learning how to use token economy interventions, and (c) students' serving as facilitators (not instructors) of horse leading practices. Viewed through the lens of andragogy theory, Japanese college students' field experiences in this study shifted as they encountered success developing human to horse relationships. Japanese college students' learning experiences in leading horses in field placement settings can be improved with multiple planned experiences, and proper training on instructional strategies for working with horses in this capacity. Due to the paucity of research in this area, it is essential for scholars to further explore follow-up phenomena to evaluate the merit of these experiences.

The purpose of this article is to lay out how physical education teachers can implement a token economy in their lessons. Following an introductory vignette, five steps to guide teachers on how to implement a token economy are described, namely (1) selection and definition of target behaviors, (2) selection of tokens, (3) selection of backup reinforcers, (4) selection of a reinforcement schedule, and (5) the exchange of tokens.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) engage in reduced levels of physical activity relative to neurotypical children. Researchers conducted 2 studies to (1) evaluate the influence of the number of physical activity options and effort on choice and (2) develop a token-based intervention to increase physical activity engagement and evaluate whether the opportunity to access the intervention supported responding similar to physical or sedentary activity alone. Four children with ASD participated. Additional physical activity options alone did not increase physical activity selection, but increased effort reduced selection of sedentary activity. Tokens increased physical activity for 2 participants. A combination of physical and sedentary activities maintained as much as or more responding than either activity in isolation for all participants. Limitations and potential areas of future research on choice and physical activity are discussed.

The use of reward systems is common in education, particularly at the primary school level. Indeed, there are very few classes in primary schools in which such systems are not implemented. Token economy are used to encourage students to adopt appropriate target social and academic behaviors. However, consensus on their effectiveness is lacking. It is beyond the scope of this article to determine whether token economy systems actually achieve their intended purpose. This article does provide important insights into their origins and offers an up-to-date overview of the research on their effects, which serve as a basis for recommendations to educators and administrators who may need to take a position on their use.

Children who do not adequately master the transition from "learning to read" (LTR) to "reading to learn" (RTL) will clearly fall behind in every subject area during their secondary education. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a simple reading comprehension strategy developed by Schumaker, Denton, and Deshler (1984) ("RAP", Read, Ask, and Put) is suitable for application as a low-threshold peer-tutoring intervention under everyday school conditions and to test its efficacy for at-risk students. A randomized two-group design with repeated measures was implemented. We included 22 teams of low-achieving (tutees) and high-achieving (tutors) fourth graders. For the first three weeks, the tutees in the first group were trained in the use of the RAP strategy combined with a token economy, while the students in the second group continued to perform regular classroom activities. During the following four weeks, a scoring system, visual feedback, and verbal encouragement on the basis of attribution theory were employed as interventional components, and all twenty-two low-achieving children received the intervention. The students at risk in the first group improved only slightly in their comprehension skills during the first phase of the experiment, whereas they demonstrated striking gains in the subsequent four weeks. Although the tutees in the second group only participated in the intervention for four weeks, they also exhibited respectable enhancements. The explorative nature of this study does not allow for causal inferences. However, the results provide hope that supporting struggling text comprehenders during their last year of elementary school by using the RAP strategy within a peer-tutorial setting can significantly improve their skill level if the intervention continues for several weeks, including scoring, visual feedback, and operant conditioning.

One of the many challenges that children with learning disabilities (LD) experience, apart from academics, is severe deficits in the areas of social skills and peer relations. The learning of social skills and appropriate ways to interact with peers are crucial for school-aged children with learning disabilities. Without these skills, it can be difficult for these children to maintain meaningful relationships as well as interact with peers in the classroom. The purpose of this study was to decrease inappropriate peer interactions in a middle school student with learning disabilities using simultaneous intervention delivery of social stories and a token economy. From previous studies, the use of social stories and token economies have both been shown to decrease inappropriate behaviors and increase appropriate behavior. Based on these studies, it was hypothesized that implementation of a token economy combined with social stories would be successful at decreasing inappropriate peer interactions. The participant was a 13-year-old boy with LD enrolled in a middle school in the Pacific Northwest. The researcher used a multiple baseline across settings design and implemented the two interventions simultaneously. The researcher found that the simultaneous use of social stories and a token economy was successful in decreasing inappropriate peer interactions in a middle school student with learning disabilities.

Token economies are an effective behavior-management tool used across multiple populations and settings. However, researchers have shown that several variables may impact its effectiveness (Hackenberg 2009, 2018). One variable within a token economy that has not been thoroughly studied is token manipulation or the extent to which the learner physically manipulates a tangible token. Thus, the current study compared the effectiveness of a token economy when participants physically manipulated tokens (token manipulation) to when the experimenter manipulated the tokens (no manipulation). In addition, we evaluated participant preference between the two conditions (i.e., token manipulation and no manipulation). The results showed higher rates of the target response during the no token manipulation condition for one participant, while no differences were observed for the other two participants. Two participants preferred the token manipulation condition, whereas the other participant showed no preference.

Early elementary inclusive classrooms present teachers with demanding responsibilities. The wide range of student backgrounds, ability levels, and previous school experiences require a well-managed classroom that maximizes instructional time. Teachers reported spending more time addressing disruptive behaviors than they thought they should. One powerful and empirically supported classwide practice for preventing or reducing problem behaviors, and possibly decreasing the need for individual behavior plans, is using group contingencies of reinforcement. This article provides early elementary teachers with strategies for managing their classrooms with independent, dependent, and interdependent group contingencies. The following section delineates procedures for implementing the three types of GAMES: Group contingency Approaches for Managing Elementary-classroom Settings.

When a student exhibits challenging classroom behaviors that are resistant to traditional classroom management systems, his/her individualized education program (IEP) team conducts a functional behavior assessment (FBA). The FBA process is a series of assessments designed to identify the function of the student's behavior. This is done by gathering indirect (e.g., interview) and direct (e.g., observation) data that include the antecedent and consequence associated with the behavior. Using this information, the IEP team can identify the focus of the behavior change associated with the intervention, plan appropriate interventions for the a behavior intervention plan (BIP), and select the type of reinforcer that will increase the likelihood of the student engaging in the desired behavior. The BIP may include the development of a token economy to reinforce the desired behavior (i.e., task completion). A token economy is a reinforcement system in which a student earns tokens following the demonstration of a desirable behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 2017). The student trades these tokens for specific backup reinforcers that would otherwise be unavailable (Soares et al., 2016). The backup reinforcers match the student's interest and address the behavior's function (i.e., the purpose of a behavior). Although a token economy is simple to understand, the procedural design can be challenging. This article describes the six non-negotiable components that comprise the token economy design.

The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective intervention to reduce disruptive behavior. The GBG typically involves immediate stimulus presentation (e.g., delivery of a token) following disruptions; however, experimenters have also removed tokens contingent upon disruptions. In the present study, we compared the effects of the GBG-stimulus presentation (P) and GBG-stimulus removal (R) on levels of disruptions in a 2nd-grade general education classroom. In addition, we measured student prompts, teacher praise and correctives, and student and teacher preference. The GBG-P and GBG-R versions of the game were similarly effective in reducing disruptions. However, the teacher chose to implement the GBG-R and the majority of students reported a preference for the GBG-R.

The prevalence of autism continues to rise, yet the ability to receive treatment or caregiver training through traditional in-person methods continues to be a precluding factor for many families. Studies have shown that parent training provides benefits to caregivers and children through increased success of interventions, implementation, and generalization of skills. This study evaluated the effect of using technology for remote caregiver training of a token economy for use during routine non-preferred activities. A multiple-baseline design was implemented across two participants, through three phases. Additional surveys and interviews were conducted to evaluate social validity. Results revealed that caregivers acquired necessary skills to implement the fixed interval schedule of reinforcement with token system and participants reported experiencing greater positive interactions with the children. Limitations of this study included no data were collected on the children's behavior, nor were they trained on token economy use. Extraneous variables may have affected the results, such as unplanned household events. Results suggest that remote caregiver training can increase desirable interactions between caregiver and child, improve socially significant behaviors, and extend resources not typically available to all families.

Behavior contracts, also known as contingency contracts, have been used as a behavioral strategy for decades (Allen et al., 1993; Bowman-Perrott et al., 2015). Originating from the field of applied behavioral analysis, behavior contracts define behavioral expectations and specify contingent rewards for displaying target behaviors (Cooper et al., 2019). Behavior contracts are pragmatic (e.g., they can be applied across a variety of settings and tailored to any age or developmental ability), can be used to enhance many behaviors, are free, and do not require ample teacher time to create or implement. Moreover, students can be active participants in their creation, facilitating student agency and self-determination. Historically, behavior contracts have been used successfully in classrooms, homes, and therapeutic settings. In classroom and home settings, behavior contracts have been used to address a wide range of behavioral skills. Academic areas successfully targeted using behavior contracts include division facts, word problems (Flood & Wilder, 2002), and spelling (Newstrom et al., 1999). Social behaviors successfully targeted using behavior contracts include on-task behavior (Allen et al., 1993), off-task behavior (Wilkinson, 2003), and homework completion (Miller & Kelley, 1994). Adding to their utility, behavior contracts can be used as a stand-alone intervention or in conjunction with other interventions (Simonsen & Myers, 2015). Other strategies that have complemented behavior contracts included goal setting, token economies, and group contingencies. The article focuses on the collaboration between the student and teacher. To develop the contract, first the teacher and student discuss the target behaviors. Then, they decide on a method for tracking progress, select a goal and rewards, and determine procedures for when the student does and does not meet their goal. Finally, they draft, review, and sign the contract.

The purpose of the present study is to show that an independent group contingency (GC) combined with self-management strategies and randomized-reinforcer components can increase the amount of written work and active classroom responding in high school students. Three remedial reading classes and a total of 15 students participated in this study. Students used self-management strategies during independent reading time to increase the amount of writing in their reading logs. They used self-monitoring strategies to record whether or not they performed expected behaviors in class. A token economy using points and tickets was included in the GC to provide positive reinforcement for target responses. The results were analyzed through visual inspection of graphs and effect size computations and showed that the intervention increased the total amount of written words in the students' reading logs and overall classroom and individual student academic engagement.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a token economy on on-task behaviors by two seventh grade boys with varying disabilities within a public school inclusion classroom setting. At the end of the study, the participant identified with ASD increased his on-task behaviors approximately 52%. The participant identified with ADHD increased about 59% and decreased an average of 3.3 talk-outs per minute, although there were environmental limitations that impacted the design and confounded the ability to determine an educational effect. One specific limitation was the lack of support for the general education teacher to influence the learning environment to be conducive for the students who required more structure than the curriculum typically provided. It is likely that increased support from the administration to provide training and collaboration with special educators for general education teachers would have increased the on-task behavior and participation of both participants.

Challenging behaviors involving food are common for individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) and often lead to obesity and other chronic health conditions. Efforts to decrease these behaviors, such as isolation during meals and strict monitoring of food consumption, can be stigmatizing. To decrease the food stealing of a 7 year-old girl with PWS, therapists conducted a latency-based functional analysis in a clinic setting before implementing a function-based intervention to facilitate her inclusion at the family dinner table. Intervention components entailed differential reinforcement procedures which incorporated a token board and schedule thinning. The intervention successfully generalized to the home setting and across food preferences and implementers.

We combined several single-subject designs to assess the effects of contingent and noncontingent token reinforcement on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) exhibited by 4 preschool-aged children. Higher overall levels and longer bouts of MVPA reliably occurred when tokens were delivered contingent on MVPA for 3 of the 4 children when compared to baseline (no token) and for 2 of the 4 children when compared to noncontingent-token conditions. The present study demonstrated that the delivery of tokens contingent on MVPA can increase and maintain MVPA exhibited by preschool-aged children, resulting in more MVPA than in baseline conditions and conditions in which tokens are awarded without respect to MVPA. These results demonstrate that token economies can be used to increase MVPA and they add to the evidence base supporting the use of token economies to address a range of behavior problems.

Encouraging engagement and collaboration amongst students can sometimes be difficult in university classrooms. Merging current technologies as a platform to incorporate collaborative practices and increasing desired student behaviors could be beneficial. The purpose of this manuscript is to share how a Web application, ClassDojo (2018), was used as a digital token economy to encourage participation, engagement, and collaboration in a university classroom. Steps and considerations for using ClassDojo and setting up a digital token economy are described.

Many teachers are concerned about their ability to work effectively with students who have a diagnosis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The purpose of this quantitative descriptive study was to determine the perceived efficacy of common interventions used to address negative ADHD behaviors in the elementary and middle school classrooms. The research questions investigated teachers' perceptions of the efficacy of the interventions, and the relationship between the interventions perceived as efficacious and teacher demographics. The data collection instrument was a researcher-designed survey that provided primarily quantitative data collected from 97 voluntary participants from two middle schools and four elementary schools. Spearman's Rho findings indicate a correlation between perceived efficacy of interventions and teacher's grade level taught and years of experience. Friedman's test indicated the intervention perceived most efficacious depended on the negative ADHD behavior presented.

This paper reviews a range of evidence-based strategies for application by teachers to reduce disruptive and challenging behaviours in their classrooms. These include a number of antecedent strategies intended to help minimise the emergence of problematic behaviours and a range of those which provide positive consequences for appropriate student behaviours. Also included is information on teacher feedback and a review of strategies for enhancing teacher-student relationships. The approaches covered by the paper are consistent with those of the Ministry of Education's Positive Behaviour for Learning (PB4L) initiatives. (Contains 1 table.)

The effects of self-monitoring on procedural integrity of token economy implementation by 3 staff in a special education classroom were evaluated. The subsequent changes in academic readiness behaviors of 2 students with low-incidence disabilities were measured. Multiple baselines across staff and students showed that procedural integrity increased when staff used monitoring checklists, and students' academic readiness behavior also increased. Results are discussed with respect to the use of self-monitoring and the importance of procedural integrity in public school settings. (Contains 2 figures.)

Responding of 4 children was assessed under conditions in which (a) no programmed contingencies were arranged for target behavior, (b) responding produced tokens that could be exchanged for a single highly preferred edible item, and (c) responding produced a token that could be exchanged for a variety of preferred edible items. After assessing the effects of these contingencies, the preferences of 3 participants were assessed using a concurrent-chains schedule. Preference for the opportunity to choose from the same or qualitatively different edible items varied across participants, and findings were generally consistent with those of Tiger, Hanley, and Hernandez (2006). (Contains 2 figures.)

Token reinforcement procedures and concepts are reviewed and discussed in relation to general principles of behavior. The paper is divided into four main parts. Part I reviews and discusses previous research on token systems in relation to common behavioral functions--reinforcement, temporal organization, antecedent stimulus functions, and aversive control--emphasizing both the continuities with other contingencies and the distinctive features of token systems. Part II describes the role of token procedures in the symmetrical law of effect, the view that reinforcers (gains) and punishers (losses) can be measured in conceptually analogous terms. Part III considers the utility of token reinforcement procedures in cross-species analysis of behavior more generally, showing how token procedures can be used to bridge the methodological gulf separating research with humans from that with other animals. Part IV discusses the relevance of token systems to the field of behavioral economics. Token systems have the potential to significantly advance research and theory in behavioral economics, permitting both a more refined analysis of the costs and benefits underlying standard economic models, and a common currency more akin to human monetary systems. Some implications for applied research and for broader theoretical integration across disciplines will also be considered. (Contains 10 figures.)

The present study investigated the effects of contingency-specifying rules and a token economy to decrease the latency to comply with academic instructions by a 16-year-old girl with acquired brain injury. Results showed that treatment was successful in reducing academic response latencies. These results replicate previous research in which differential reinforcement was used to decrease slow responding to academic tasks. (Contains 1 figure.)

A forced-choice preference assessment using pictures and no access upon selection was used to determine preferences for community-based activities with 4 young adults with autism and intellectual disability. High- and low-preference activities were then provided as delayed consequences, using a token economy, for completion of vocational tasks in a concurrent operants paradigm. All participants responded to the contingency associated with earning the high-preference activity and away from the contingency associated with earning the low-preference activity. The results suggest that a pictorial assessment without access is a valid method for identifying community-based activities that will function as reinforcers. This efficient protocol could improve treatment efficacy in applied settings.

Many students with and/or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders have academic deficits that affect their performance in mathematics. In addition, these students' behavioral issues may interfere with their academic achievement. For these students, it makes sense for teachers to consider implementing research- and/or evidence-based practices that simultaneously promote mathematics fluency and increased academic engagement. The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with three instructional practices that we believe can easily be integrated into mathematics instruction. The practices are opportunities to respond, token economy, and self-monitoring.

This paper reports the findings of a field experiment that gamified the classroom experience of elementary school ESL students by implementing digital badges-and-points which students could earn by achieving specific behavioral and learning goals. Altogether, 120 children in eight different classes participated in this study. Four of the classes (experimental group) used the digital badges-and-points available in ClassDojo, a free online classroom management system, while the other four classes (control group) employed a nondigital conventional school token point system. The results showed that digital badges-and-points afforded by ClassDojo significantly improved student learning in two classes (Grades 3 and 4) but not in Grades 1 and 2 classes. Overall, students reported enjoying using digital badges-and-points in the classrooms. Teacher observational data indicated that the digital badges-and-points group displayed more positive and on-task behaviors than the non-digital classroom token point system group.

The authors utilized Applied Behavior Analysis to examine the effects of using tokens with response cost (the Checkbook Management System) on decreasing the inappropriate speaking-out behaviors of a 14-year-old special education student. After functional behavior analysis indicated that the most likely function of the behavior was attention seeking, an intervention was designed to provide attention and tokens contingent upon the performance of the functional alternative behavior of hand-raising and waiting to be called on. Results showed a 67% decrease in the mean target behavior from baseline to intervention conditions.

The present study uses the PEM approach to synthesize the effectiveness of treatment on disruptive behaviors and simultaneously tests whether the higher validity of the PEM approach than that of the PND approach is repeatable. A hand search of the "Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis" was conducted, and reference lists from reviewed articles were traced to locate relevant studies. Altogether, 106 single-subject studies, which produced 694 effect sizes, were analyzed. The grand mean of 106 averaged effect sizes was significant. Results demonstrated that the PEM approach was more congruent with the original authors' judgments than the PND approach. Important findings regarding the effectiveness of interventions on the disruptive behaviors are that the strategies of differential reinforcement and the token economy system along with multi-components intervention were highly effective. (Contains 5 tables.)

The purpose of the present case report was to evaluate the effects of an individual token economy with a young child with severe behavior disorders. Three behaviors were recorded; time to completion, the number of assignments completed, and the frequency of inappropriate behavior. These data were gathered for 30 minutes each morning. The overall outcomes indicated that the two different token systems were effective in improving the participant's academic and social behavior. The amount of work that was required could be increased without a large decrement in academic output or increases in inappropriate behavior. The program was enjoyed by both the teaching staff and the participant. Suggestions for future research and the maintenance of treatment gains were made. (Contains 3 figures.)

This study extended the limited research on the utility of tactile prompts and examined the effects of a treatment package on implementation of a token economy by instructional assistants in a classroom for students with disabilities. During baseline, we measured how accurately the assistants implemented a classroom token economy based on the routine training they had received through the school system. Baseline was followed by brief in-service training, which resulted in no improvement of token-economy implementation for recently hired instructional assistants. A treatment package of prompting and self-monitoring with accuracy feedback was then introduced as a multiple baseline design across behaviors. The treatment package was successfully faded to a more manageable self-monitoring intervention. Results showed visually significant improvements for all participants during observation sessions. (Contains 5 figures.)

The efficacy of three behavior management techniques used in a Head Start classroom was examined. The three techniques included: (a) techniques currently used by the teacher, (b) response cost, and (c) the Level System (token economy). The current study used an ABACA single subject withdrawal design with follow-up where all conditions were implemented until stability was reached. Classroom behavior was evaluated by both behavioral observation and teacher report. Children's and teacher's behavior were examined. No conclusions could be made concerning the efficacy (i.e., inappropriate behavior) of the techniques. Teachers used more labeled praise statements and fewer critical statements during the Level System condition than all other conditions. (Contains 4 figures.)

Behavior management techniques are essential components of any treatment method for students with ADHD. Further, they appear to be the only line of treatment to which school personnel have direct access. Research has suggested that nearly all educators employ some form of behavioral modification techniques in their classroom. This paper will explore a variety of classroom interventions to assist teachers to work successfully with children with ADHD. These include: classroom structure, teaching modifications, peer interventions, token economies and self-management. The interventions reviewed were presented on a continuum from the least basic modifications needed in the classroom to those in which more time and resources are involved. All the strategies reviewed were evidence based. Also included in the paper is an interview of a general education instructor and a review of the strategies he employs in his classroom.

Behavior problems are increasing in frequency among preschool children. Thus, preschool teachers must be prepared to manage the increasing disruptive behaviors exhibited in their classrooms. Because positive behavioral management strategies are accepted by teachers and have been proven effective, token economies may be promising interventions to manage disruptive behavior in the classroom. However, little research has been conducted in this area. In addition, there are developmental, practical, and philosophical issues that should be considered before token economies are recommended for preschool classrooms. This paper reviews the relevant research in this area and addresses each of these concerns.

Over the last thirty years, children's behavioral health services in the school have witnessed drastic progress. Over this time, medications for mental health problems have improved. In addition, empirically validated treatments, most of which have come from behavioral psychology, have made their way into Best Practice guidelines for the treatment of children with emotional and behavioral disorders. In 1999, the U.S. Surgeon General reported on many of these practices and suggested their use to enhance treatment outcomes for children. The President's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003) suggested the need for evidence-based practices to become a regular part of behavioral health care practice and suggested setting up and evaluating the effectiveness of such practices in demonstration projects. In addition, in the 2003-year school year, Children Crisis Treatment Center participated in a new school based program, which focused on the treatment of children with emotional and behavioral disorders in the school. Twenty-four children entered into the program over the course of the first year. Each child received a functional behavioral assessment and an individualized behavioral intervention plan. The treatments in these plans represented evidence based, best practices such as contingency management procedures like token systems with response cost, behavioral skills training, and problem solving training. The system functioned as a revolving entry program providing behavioral consultation to teachers, behavior therapy to children and direct care support to implement non-technical behavioral interventions. Of the eleven staff in the program, three had a masters' degree in counseling or a related field, who served as both behavior therapists and behavioral consultants to the teachers. Seven staff had bachelors degree in psychology related fields and one-year experience. Bachelor level staff provided direct care to the children on a rotating basis across the children's school day. The program never had more than twenty-two children at any one time. The pre-post scores represent the scores at the child's entrance and exits from the program, or entrance to the end of the school year. The average length of time represented in these scores for a child in the program was approximately 6 months. Of the original group, 18 received pre-post scores on the Achenbach: Teacher Report Form. One child's pre-post scoring pattern was in the normal range for both instruments, so we excluded his scores from the analysis. This paper represents an outcome analysis of the effectiveness of this program. Using the Jacobson and Truax's (1997) reliable change index score, we rated large behavioral response classes (or what some would refer to as psychiatric symptoms) to determine if clinically significant improvement resulted from the program. Using these measures, enhanced functioning occurred for twelve out of seventeen scores or 70% of the children. In addition, five out of the 17 or approximately 30% showed enough improvement to score as partially recovered. (Contains 1 table.)

Teachers commonly use behavioral logs as a primary method for controlling classroom behavior, but frequently they are using these logs incorrectly. For this reason, this article provides specific information on how to correctly use behavioral logs for techniques such as check-in/check-out, behavioral report cards, and token economies. Each of these are described in terms of empirical support for their use and how they would be integrated into a positive behavioral and intervention support model. Concrete examples are provided for school-based practitioners to use when working with their own students.

The purpose of the current two-experiment study was to examine the use of a preference assessment for dimensions of reinforcement to inform an effective token economy arrangement. Three participants diagnosed with developmental disabilities who engaged in negatively reinforced problem behavior participated in this study. During Experiment 1, a preference assessment for four dimensions of reinforcement (i.e., quality, immediacy, magnitude, and rate) occurred to inform a more- and less-preferred token economy arrangement. During Experiment 2, a treatment evaluation compared these two token economy arrangements. Results for all three participants showed lower rates of problem behavior under the more-preferred token economy arrangement compared to the less-preferred token economy arrangement. Rates of task completion were higher under the more-preferred token economy arrangement for one of the three participants. Results are discussed in terms of their practical implications for clinicians and educators implementing token economies to manage problem behavior.