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Reduction of Plant Protection Products (PPP) has become a priority in agriculture, led by European directives and regulations due to the negative impacts and social awareness that pesticides have raised in the population. In viticulture, the use of copper to control Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola) is posing severe problems of soil, water and environment contamination, and European Commission is regulating its use through the EU regulation 2018/1981. A targeted spraying management can be done benefiting from the novel development of variable rate application (VRA) technology for orchard sprayers, resulting in savings of PPP. In this research, the quality of the application in terms of copper deposit in leaves of two VRA strategies where compared versus the conventional strategy performed by the farmer (REF)., This research was developed with funding from the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food within the project GOPHYTOVID [contract 2018002001192], and partial funding from the FI-AGAUR grant from the Generalitat de Catalunya (2017 FI_B 00893)., Postprint (published version)

New spraying systems embedded with different technologies have been developed for pesticide application in 3D crops. However, while applied to specific tree crops, the potential spray drift mitigation for advanced spraying systems needs to be classified due to the great variability of spray equipment and canopy structure. Here a precision spraying system was developed and compared with two typical spraying systems (conventional system, optimized system following the best management practices) for the applied volume/pesticide and spray drift in an apple orchard at two growth stages following the ISO22866-2005 protocol. Compared to the conventional system, the other two advanced systems significantly reduced the amount of ground drift (>60%) at most of the sampling distances at the growth stage BBCH 72, while the precision system demonstrated the best drift mitigation (57.3% reduction) at the stage BBCH 99. For the airborne drift, a remarkable drift reduction was also achieved with the two advanced systems. Specifically, the optimized spraying system exhibited a drift reduction by approximately 80% at the first growth stage, and the precision application demonstrated its considerable advantages in minimizing drift loss for the sparse canopy at the stage BBCH 99. Moreover, the saving of applied volume/pesticide was achieved by 12% with the optimized system and 43% with the precision system. This study revealed the necessity and prospect of the advanced spraying systems to reduce the environmental contamination and health risk from pesticide applications in fruit tree production., This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 773718 (OPTimised Integrated pest Management for precise detection and control of plant diseases in perennial crops and open-field vegetables, www.optima-h2020.eu). Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Canopy characterisation is a key factor for the success and efficiency of the pesticide application process in vineyards., This research was developed with partial funding from the FI-AGAUR grant from the Generalitat de Catalunya (2017 FI_B 00893, Preprint

Tesi en modalitat compendi de publicacions, amb una secció retallada per drets d'editor, The use of plant protection products (PPP) has become an essential tool in agriculture to achieve the minimum requirements of quality and quantity of food demanded by consumers. Moreover, due to its repeated use throughout the campaign, it is one of the most complex strategies in agriculture, due to the concern for achieving products free of pests and diseases, free of residues, and avoiding environmental risks. The recently published Farm to Fork Strategy aims at the difficult task of reducing the amount of hazardous pesticides used by 50 % by 2030. From the moment this strategy was published, it gained importance the implementation of improvements in application techniques to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of treatments. This is especially relevant in specialty crops such as orchards or vineyards, where the use of PPP is very high, compared with the case of field crops. In addition, this type of crops is characterised by a high degree of spatial variability in terms of the canopy structural characteristics, which makes it difficult to achieve a safe and effective application of pesticides. In this sense, variable rate application technology can reduce the effect of intra-plot variability, adjusting the volume rate to the canopy characteristics at each point, achieving a much more rational distribution of the plant protection product and more adjusted to the canopy than those carried out homogeneously. Currently, three types of variable rate application technology are known: 1) based on real-time sensors, 2) based on prescription maps, and 3) a combination of the two previous ones. Although variable rate application systems based on real-time sensors eliminate the need for prior knowledge of the crop, this technology has not been practically implemented in the viticulture sector. This contrasts with the adoption of vegetation maps acquired using remote sensing, which has been in commercial use for vineyard management for more than ten years. Among the ma, El uso de productos fitosanitarios se ha convertido en una herramienta esencial en la agricultura para lograr los requisitos mínimos de calidad y cantidad de alimentos demandados por los consumidores. Además, debido a su reiterado uso durante toda la campaña, lo convierten en una de las estrategias más complejas de la agricultura actual, debido a la preocupación por conseguir productos libres de plagas y enfermedades, libres de residuos, y evitando los posibles riesgos medioambientales. A partir de la recientemente publicada Estrategia de la Granja a la Mesa, que tiene como objetivo la difícil tarea de reducir el 50 % la cantidad de plaguicidas peligrosos utilizados antes del año 2030, cobra cada vez mayor importancia la implementación de mejoras en las técnicas de aplicación que permitan aumentar la eficacia y la eficiencia de los tratamientos y, consecuentemente, la potencial reducción de la cantidad de plaguicidas utilizados. Esta estrategia es especialmente importante en los cultivos especiales como los frutales o la viña, donde el uso de productos fitosanitarios es muy elevado, en comparación con lo que sucede en el caso de cultivos herbáceos. Además, este tipo de cultivos se caracterizan por presentar un alto grado de variabilidad espacial en cuanto a las características estructurales de la vegetación, lo que dificulta lograr una aplicación segura y eficaz de los productos fitosanitarios. En este sentido, la tecnología de aplicación variable es capaz de reducir el efecto de la variabilidad intraparcelaria ajustando el volumen de caldo a las características de la vegetación en cada punto, consiguiendo de esta forma una distribución del producto fitosanitario mucho más racional y más ajustada a la vegetación que los realizados de manera homogénea. Actualmente, se conocen tres tipos de tecnología de aplicación variable: 1) basada en la aplicación en tiempo real a partir de información obtenida por sensores, 2) fundamentada en mapas de prescripción, y 3) una combi, L'ús dels productes fitosanitaris s'ha convertit en una eina essencial de l'agricultura per a aconseguir els requisits mínims de qualitat i quantitat d'aliments exigits pels consumidors. A més, a causa del seu reiterat ús durant tota la campanya, ho converteixen en una de les estratègies més complexes de l'agricultura actual a causa de la preocupació per aconseguir productes lliures de plagues i malalties, lliures de residus i evitant els possibles riscos mediambientals. A partir de la recentment publicada “Estratègia de la Granja a la Taula”, que té com a objectiu la difícil tasca de reduir el 50 % la quantitat de plaguicides perillosos utilitzats abans de l'any 2030, cobra cada vegada major importància la implementació de millores en les tècniques d'aplicació que permetin augmentar l'eficàcia i l'eficiència dels tractaments i, conseqüentment la potencial reducció de la quantitat de plaguicides utilitzats. Aquesta estratègia és especialment important en els anomenats “cultius especials” com són els fruiters o la vinya, on l’ús de productes fitosanitaris és molt elevat, en comparació amb el que succeeix en el cas de cultius herbacis. A més, aquests tipus de cultius es caracteritzen per presentar una gran variabilitat pel que fa a les característiques estructurals de la vegetació al llarg de la parcel·la, cosa que dificulta realitzar una aplicació segura i eficaç dels productes fitosanitaris. En aquest sentit, la tecnologia d'aplicació variable és capaç de reduir l'efecte de la variabilitat intraparcel·lària, ajustant el volum d’aplicació a les característiques de la vegetació a cada punt, aconseguint d’aquesta manera una distribució del producte fitosanitari molt més racional i més ajustada a la vegetació que els realitzats de manera homogènia. Actualment, es coneixen tres tipus de tecnologia d'aplicació variable: 1) basada en l'aplicació en temps real a partir d'informació obtinguda per sensors, 2) fonamentada en mapes de prescripció, i 3) una combinació de les due, Postprint (published version)

Uniformity of spray volumetric distribution is one of the officially established measurements for the evaluation of horizontal boom sprayers according to ISO 16119 and requirements established in ISO 16122., Postprint (updated version)

Leaf wall area (LWA) has been proposed as an appropriate dose expression for field testing of plant protection products (PPPs) applied via foliar spray in trellised grapes. However, its efficiency could change depending on the characteristics of the crop or the pesticide application equipment (PAE). Herein, three spray technologies were evaluated. A traditional air-assisted tractor-mounted sprayer was compared with two portable knapsack sprayers: a backpack mistblower and a backpack hydraulic sprayer., Postprint (updated version)

The aim of this work wasto evaluate the use of Variable Rate Application technologies based on prescription maps in commercial vineyards with large intra-parcel variability to achieve a more sustainable distribution of Plant Protection Products (PPP)., This research was funded by the project Gophytovid: Optimización del uso de fitosanitarios en viticultura en base a mapas de vigor (Rural development 2014-2020 for Operational Groups), Postprint (published version)

Los viticultores cuentan con una nueva herramienta para optimizar el uso de productos fitosanitarios en la viña adecuando el proceso a los requerimientos establecidos por el nuevo marco legislativo europeo derivado de la implementación de la Directiva Europea de Uso Sostenible de Plaguicidas (Directiva 128/2009/EC)., Postprint (published version)

El ecosistema que rodea la producción de uva y vino a nivel español se ve inmerso en un importante cambio de paradigma productivo con crecientes retos a los que hacer frente si se quiere asegurar su sostenibilidad durante las próximas décadas. La racionalización de los productos fitosanitarios está cada vez más presente, liderada por normativas estrictas que limitan su uso a la vez que por una demanda creciente del consumidor que busca vinos con una menor huella ambiental. La incorporación de las nuevas tecnologías en la mecanización del campo tiene un papel muy importante para asegurar que las operaciones que se llevan a cabo en el viñedo son seguras, sostenibles y asegurar que las uvas llegan en las condiciones más óptimas a las bodegas y por ende al consumidor., Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::9 - Indústria, Innovació i Infraestructura, Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::3 - Salut i Benestar, Postprint (published version)

Canopy characteristics are crucial for accurately and safely determining the pesticide quantity and volume of water used for spray applications in vineyards. The inevitably high degree of intraplot variability makes it difficult to develop a global solution for the optimal volume application rate. Here, the design procedure of, and the results obtained from, a variable rate application (VRA) sprayer are presented. Prescription maps were generated after detailed canopy characterization, using a multispectral camera embedded on an unmanned aerial vehicle, throughout the entire growing season in Torrelavit (Barcelona) in four vineyard plots of Chardonnay, Postprint (published version)

© 2020. This manuscript version is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0, © 2020. This manuscript version is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0, Spray application technologies for specialty crops have developed considerably in recent years with regard to improved control, reduced cost, and ability to avoid environmental contamination. For example, new developments in electrostatic sprayers have been progressively introduced as an alternative for vineyard spray applications., Postprint (author's final draft)

DOSAVIÑA is a new tool (website and app for smartphones) developed for calculating the optimal volume rates and pesticide doses to apply during spray application processes in vineyards. DOSAVIÑA also calculates and recommends the optimal working parameters for working pressure, forward speed, and number and types of nozzles, This research was partially funded by the “Ajuts a les activitats de demostració (operació 01.02.01 de Transferència Tecnològica del Programa de desenvolupament rural de Catalunya 2014-2020)” and an FI-DGR grant from Generalitat de Catalunya (2018 FI_B1 00083). Research and improvement of Dosaviña have been developed under the LIFE PERFECT project: Pesticide Reduction using Friendly and Environmentally Controlled Technologies (LIFE17 ENV/ES/000205, Postprint (updated version)

Air assisted sprayers are currently used for the applications of plant protection products in fruit trees and vineyards. However, the use of these equipment carries a high environmental risk, mainly owing to the generation of airborne spray drift in the lower boundary layer above crop canopy. Hence, many tests are currently focused on investigating several factors that affect the efficiency of the spray process, in which air assistance and air behaviour are two of the most difficult parameters to evaluate. This present work proposes a first approach on the characterization of the airflow generated by an orchard sprayer equipped with an axial fan and an air reverse system in the outlet plane of the air, while circulated through two artificial rows of canopy representing vineyard trellis, using 3D-ultrasonic anemometers to measure the experimental data., Postprint (updated version)

Site-specific management of crops represents an important improvement in terms of efficiency and efficacy of the different labours, and its implementation has experienced a large development in the last decades, especially for field crops. The particular case of the spray application process for what are called “specialty crops” (vineyard, orchard fruits, citrus, olive trees, etc.), FI-DGR grant from Generalitat de Catalunya (2018 FI_B1 00083). Research and improvement of Dosaviña have been developed under LIFE PERFECT project: Pesticide Reduction using Friendly and Environmentally Controlled Technologies (LIFE17 ENV/ES/000205), This research was partially funded by the “Ajuts a les activitats de demostració (operació 01.02.01 de Transferència Tecnològica del Programa de desenvolupament rural de Catalunya 2014-2020)” and an FI-DGR grant from Generalitat de Catalunya (2018 FI_B1 00083). Research and improvement of Dosaviña have been developed under the LIFE PERFECT project: Pesticide Reduction using Friendly and Environmentally Controlled Technologies (LIFE17 ENV/ES/000205)., This research was partially funded by the “Ajuts a les activitats de demostració (operació 01.02.01 de Transferència Tecnològica del Programa de desenvolupament rural de Catalunya 2014-2020)” and an FI-DGR grant from Generalitat de Catalunya (2018 FI_B1 00083). Research and improvement of Dosaviña have been developed under LIFE PERFECT project: Pesticide Reduction using Friendly and Environmentally Controlled Technologies (LIFE17 ENV/ES/000205), Postprint (updated version)

This work presents the development of an actual site-specific spraying map of a variable rate sprayer prototype, which works following a prescription map obtained with a UAV. Trials were conducted in Torrelavit (NE Spain) in a representative vineyard of 3 ha of variety Merlot. P, Postprint (published version)

Las características de la vegetación son un aspecto fundamental a tener en cuenta para determinar el volumen de aplicación de productos fitosanitarios. El alto grado de variabilidad intraparcelaria ha aumentado la dificultad de obtener soluciones generales para la determinación del volumen óptimo de aplicación, La validación del Dosaviña ha sido desarrollada en el marco del proyecto LIFE PERFECT project: Pesticide Reduction using Friendly and Environmentally Controlled Technologies (LIFE17 ENV/ES/000205), Este trabajo se ha financiado parcialmente por los “Ajuts a les activitats de demostració (operació 01.02.01 de Transferència Tecnològica del Programa de desenvolupament rural de Catalunya 2014–2020)” y la beca FI-AGAUR. La validación del Dosaviña ha sido desarrollada en el marco del proyecto LIFE PERFECT project: Pesticide Reduction using Friendly and Environmentally Controlled Technologies (LIFE17 ENV/ES/000205)., Postprint (published version)

Since the publication of European Directive (2009/127/EC), environmental requirements for new orchard sprayers are mandatory. Only equipment which has successfully accomplished the specifications can be placed into the EU market, Postprint (updated version)

Mandatory inspections in Spain are organized following ISO 16122. In order to guarantee a clear and comprehensive inspection’s procedure in all of the official inspection’s workshops, the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture published an official inspection’s manual based on ISO 16122 in order to improve and harmonize the process., Postprint (published version)

The present work consisted to characterize the fluctuations of the airflow produced by 4 sprayers adapted to greenhouse phytosanitary applications. Four equipment were used: 1) a handheld trolley sprayer (Amate, Almería, Spain) with an air generator, Postprint (author's final draft)

El proyecto europeo TOPPS, impulsado por el sector privado con el apoyo de las instituciones públicas, pretende hacer llegar toda la información necesaria a los agricultores europeos acerca de los riesgos medioambientales que existen durante los tratamientos fitosanitarios., Postprint (author's final draft)

Sprayer types, as well as working parameters, have direct influence on the amount of spray retained on the canopy. This research was focused on the quantification of spray amount that exceeded the last canopy row during the spray application in a vineyard parcel., Postprint (published version)

The high cost of the liquid fertilizer application equipment, unaffordable for the majority of the farmers, forces them to derive the fertilizer contributions to the utilities. Due to the big demand of these applications, the utilities are forced to make applications during the day and at night. The fact of doing them at night hinders the tractor the visibility of the back side of the equipment, which makes difficult to test the quality of the application. For this reason when an obstruction happens in any of the equipment nozzles or in any of its lines and the driver does not realize, the application is no longer correct which leads to serious agronomic problems for the farmer and economic prejudices for the utilities. This project tries to find a system able to detect the obstructions in the liquid fertilizer application equipment. For this, four different sensors were analysed and tested based on optic, photoelectric, ultrasound and pressure sensors. The designed system had to be able to detect the nozzle obstruction and send the information to a console located in the tractor cab, allowing the driver the control of the application quality during the whole time. The results obtained after the testing gave as a result the design of a system composed by an ultrasound sensor and a led device located in the tractor cab. The project also includes the economic evaluation of the designed prototype. The optic sensors in any of the cases detected a change between presence and absence of fluid, whereas the pressure sensor detected the changes in some of the cases and the ultrasound sensor always detected the difference., L'elevat cost dels equips d'aplicació de fertilitzants líquids, inassolible per la gran majoria d'agricultors, obliga a derivar les aportacions de fertilitzant a les empreses de serveis. Davant la gran demanda d'aquestes aplicacions, les empreses de serveis es veuen obligades a realitzar aplicacions durant el dia y durant la nit. El fet de realitzar-les per les nits dificulta molt al tractorista la visibilitat de la part posterior de l'equip, el que dificulta la comprovació de la qualitat de l'aplicació. Per aquest motiu quan es produeix una obturació a qualsevol dels broquets de l'equip o a alguna de les seves conduccions i el tractorista no s'adverteix, la aplicació deixa de ser correcta el que suposa greus problemes agronòmics per l'agricultor i greus perjudicis per a les empreses de serveis. Amb aquest treball es pretén trobar un sistema capaç de detectar les obstruccions en els equips d'aplicació de fertilitzants líquids. Per això es van dissenyar i provar quatre tipus de dispositius basats en sensors òptics fotoelèctrics, de pressió i d'ultrasons. El sistema dissenyat havia de ser capaç de detectar l'obturació del broquet i enviar informació a una consola ubicada a la cabina del tractor, de manera que permetés al tractorista controlar en tot moment la qualitat de l'aplicació. Els resultats obtinguts de les probes realitzades han donat com a resultat el disseny d'un sistema compost per un sensor d'ultrasons i un dispositiu de LEDs situat en la cabina del tractor. El projecte inclou també una avaluació econòmica del prototip dissenyat. En cap dels casos, els sensors òptics van detectar un canvi entre presencia i absència de fluid, mentre que el sensor de pressió els detectava en alguns casos i el sensor d'ultrasons sempre., El elevado coste de los equipos de aplicación de fertilizantes líquidos, inasumible para la gran mayoría de los agricultores, obliga a derivar las aportaciones de fertilizante a las empresas de servicios. Ante la gran demanda de estas aplicaciones, las empresas de servicios se ven obligadas a realizar aplicaciones por el día y por la noche. El hecho de realizarlas por las noches imposibilita mucho al tractorista la visibilidad de la parte trasera del equipo, lo que dificulta la comprobación de la calidad de la aplicación. Por este motivo cuando se produce una obturación en cualquiera de las boquillas del equipo o en alguna de sus conducciones y el tractorista no se advierte de ello, la aplicación deja de ser correcta lo que supone graves problemas agronómicos para el agricultor y perjuicios económicos para las empresas de servicios. Con este trabajo se pretende encontrar un sistema capaz de detectar las obstrucciones en los equipos de aplicación de fertilizantes líquidos. Para ello se diseñaron y probaron cuatro tipos de dispositivos basados en sensores ópticos, fotoeléctricos, de presión y de ultrasonidos. El sistema diseñado debía ser capaz de detectar la obturación de la boquilla y enviar información a una consola ubicada en la cabina del tractor, permitiendo al tractorista controlar en todo momento la calidad de la aplicación. Los resultados obtenidos tras las pruebas realizadas han dado como resultado el diseño de un sistema compuesto por un sensor de ultrasonidos y un dispositivo de leds ubicado en la cabina del tractor. El proyecto incluye también una evaluación económica del prototipo diseñado. Los sensores ópticos en ninguno de los casos detectaron un cambio entre presencia y ausencia de fluido mientras que el sensor de presión los detectaba en algunos casos y el sensor de ultrasonidos siempre.