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Multi-proxy analysis of the coprolites which were found during excavations at two Late Neolithic (fourth millennium bc) pile-dwelling sites (Crnelnik and Stare gmajne) in Slovenia yielded some new insights into human–dog relations and behaviour. The digested content is presented in a multidisciplinary approach, in which palynological, palaeoparasitological, archaeobotanical and archaeozoological features are studied and genetic signs are tested. Beside the origin of the coprolites, the size of an animal and the diet, the faeces provided some additional information, such as health, status, nutrition habits, environment and season.

Numerous fragments of Cornus sanguinea (dogwood) fruit stones were found in the cultural layer of the Late Neolithic pile dwelling site Strojanova voda at Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia, which indicate the Late Neolithic use of dogwood fruits. While these fruits are considered to be inedible, the research question about their use arose. Ethnobotanical and archaeobotanical sources were examined and experimental work on processing and using fresh C. sanguinea fruits was done, followed by chemical analyses of modern fruits (endocarps, mesocarps and exocarps) and archaeological fruit stones from the site. All these various approaches together suggest some possible uses. Fresh dogwood fruits can be crushed to give a soapy, creamy and oily emulsion with an exfoliant effect on the skin, which proved to be applicable, besides for oil, for cleaning and washing bodies, clothes and/or dishes. It can be concluded that Late Neolithic pile dwellers had a great knowledge of wild plants and their properties, and not only for food, and that the use of C. sanguinea fruits, at least south of the Alps, has been undervalued until now.

More than 5000 years old dog’s coprolite was found during rescue excavation at Crnelnik pile-dwelling site in Slovenia. Although human and dog diets may overlap considerably, the content of the consumed and digested food, consisting of plant and/or animal remains biologically diverse. While the investigated fossil excrement contained many fish head bones, scales and teeth of Cyprinidae family, we believe that we are dealing with an individual that had only eaten fish heads, that is why it was suggested to be of dog. Beside the origin and the daily diet of the individual together with the nutritional habits of the dog in the Late Neolithic, the analyses of coprolite provide more important information, for example: the time of year of the deposit, the environmental conditions there, the size and the health of the animal as well as care (or the status) of domesticated animal for humans. The discovery confirms again that animal dung should be an important part of archaeological investigations, specially at waterlogged sites.

Pri arheoloških izkopavanjih na območju rimskega Navporta (danes Vrhnika), kjer so bili v letu 2005 odkriti deli različnih lesenih konstrukcij, smo raziskali skoraj 500 vzorcev lesa. Polovico vzorcev je predstavljal les jelke (Abies alba) in hrasta (Quercus sp.). Posebej smo se osredotočili na dendrokronološko raziskavo treh sodov iz lesa jelke, ki so bili uporabljeni za utrditev sten jaškov treh vodnjakov. Najprej smo sestavili in s pomočjo telekonekcije datirali referenčno kronologijo jelke, nato pa smo datirali še sode. Datacije najmlajših branik so: sod 1 % leto 10 po Kr., sod 2 % leto 3 po Kr. in sod 3 % leto 10 po Kr. Vse datacije predstavljajo terminus post quem, po katerem so bili sodi uporabljeni za vodnjake. Časovni okvir gradnje vodnjakov dopolnjujejo datacije, ki smo jih pridobili z analizo arheoloških najdb. Izkazalo se je, da so sodi z Navporta približno sočasni nedavno raziskanim sodom iz zgodnjerimskih vodnjakov z območja Emone (danes Ljubljana). Datacije sodov so med prvimi uspešnimi dendrokronološkimi rezultati raziskav lesa v zgodnjerimskih naselbinah v Sloveniji ter bodo omogočile boljše datiranje stratigrafskih arheoloških plasti, gradbenih faz in posameznih najdb na širšem prostoru južno od Alp v obdobju kmalu po rimski zasedbi. During archaeological excavations on wet sites in the area of the ancient Roman Nauportus (today’s Vrhnika, Slovenia) in 2005, preserved parts of various wooden structures were discovered. We collected and investigated almost 500 samples of wood from these. Half of the samples were silver fir (Abies alba) and oak (Quercus sp.). In particular, we focused on the dendrochronological investigation of three barrels made of silver fir wood, which were used to consolidate the walls of the three water wells. First, we constructed and dated a silver fir tree-ring chronology with the help of teleconnection. Afterward, we dated the barrels with the end dates: barrel 1 – end date 10 AD, barrel 2 – end date 3 AD, and barrel 3 – end date 10 AD. All dates represent the terminus post quem, after which the barrels were made and used for wells. The time frame for the construction of wells was complemented by the dates we obtained by analysing archaeological finds on the same site. The barrels from Nauportus were compared with contemporaneous barrels from water wells recently excavated in Emona (today’s Ljubljana, Slovenia). The barrels are among the first successfully dendrochronologically dated wooden remains from the 1st Century AD in Slovenia. They will allow for the better dating of stratigraphic archaeological layers, construction phases and individual archaeological finds in the wider area south of the Alps in the period soon after it was occupied by the Romans.

Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) is not one of the founder crops domesticated in Southwest Asia in the early Holocene, but was domesticated in northeast China by 6000 bc. In Europe, millet was reported in Early Neolithic contexts formed by 6000 bc, but recent radiocarbon dating of a dozen 'early' grains cast doubt on these claims. Archaeobotanical evidence reveals that millet was common in Europe from the 2nd millennium bc, when major societal and economic transformations took place in the Bronze Age. We conducted an extensive programme of AMS-dating of charred broomcorn millet grains from 75 prehistoric sites in Europe. Our Bayesian model reveals that millet cultivation began in Europe at the earliest during the sixteenth century bc, and spread rapidly during the fifteenth/fourteenth centuries bc. Broomcorn millet succeeds in exceptionally wide range of growing conditions and completes its lifecycle in less than three summer months. Offering an additional harvest and thus surplus food/fodder, it likely was a transformative innovation in European prehistoric agriculture previously based mainly on (winter) cropping of wheat and barley. We provide a new, high-resolution chronological framework for this key agricultural development that likely contributed to far-reaching changes in lifestyle in late 2nd millennium bc Europe.

The results of plant macroremains studies of the Eneolithic (c. 3160–3100 cal BC) lakeshore settlement at Stare gmajne on the Ljubljansko barje in Slovenia are presented. Archaeobotanical material was collected in two different ways: (1) systematic surface sampling from the cultural layer, and (2) judgement sampling from an incompletely burnt large loom-weight. The preservation state and the spectra of plant macroremains were different in both types of samples. The first study primarily deals with the waterlogged plant remains of various types and taxa, while the second deals with carbonised and half-carbonised cereal macroremains, mostly chaff. Both studies confirm the cultivation of main crops: emmer, einkorn and barley.

During archaeological excavations on wet sites in the area of the ancient Roman Nauportus (today's Vrhnika, Slovenia) in 2005, preserved parts of various wooden structures were discovered. We collected and investigated almost 500 samples of wood from these. Half of the samples were silver fir (Abies alba) and oak ( Quercus sp.). In particular, we focused on the dendrochronological investigation of three barrels made of silver fir wood, which were used to con- solidate the walls of the three water wells. First, we constructed and dated a silver fir tree-ring chronology with the help of teleconnection. Afterward, we dated the barrels with the end dates: barrel 1 % end date 10 AD, barrel 2 % end date 3 AD, and barrel 3 % end date 10 AD. All dates represent the terminus post quem , after which the barrels were made and used for wells. The time frame for the construction of wells was complemented by the dates we obtained by analysing archaeological finds on the same site. The barrels from Nauportus were compared with contemporaneous barrels from water wells recently excavated in Emona (today's Ljubljana, Slovenia). The barrels are among the first successfully dendrochronologically dated wooden remains from the 1st Century AD in Slovenia. They will allow for the better dating of stratigraphic archaeological layers, construction phases and individual archaeological finds in the wider area south of the Alps in the period soon after it was occupied by the Romans. Pri arheoloških izkopavanjih na območju rimskega Navporta (danes Vrhnika), kjer so bili v letu 2005 odkriti deli različnih lesenih konstrukcij, smo raziskali skoraj 500 vzorcev lesa. Polovico vzorcev je predstavljal les jelke (Abies alba) in hrasta (Quercus sp.). Posebej smo se osredotočili na dendrokronološko raziskavo treh sodov iz lesa jelke, ki so bili uporabljeni za utrditev sten jaškov treh vodnjakov. Najprej smo sestavili in s pomočjo telekonekcije datirali referenčno kronologijo jelke, nato pa smo datirali še sode. Datacije najmlajših branik so: sod 1 % leto 10 po Kr., sod 2 % leto 3 po Kr. in sod 3 % leto 10 po Kr. Vse datacije predstavljajo terminus post quem, po katerem so bili sodi uporabljeni za vodnjake. Časovni okvir gradnje vodnjakov dopolnjujejo datacije, ki smo jih pridobili z analizo arheoloških najdb. Izkazalo se je, da so sodi z Navporta približno sočasni nedavno raziskanim sodom iz zgodnjerimskih vodnjakov z območja Emone (danes Ljubljana). Datacije sodov so med prvimi uspešnimi dendrokronološkimi rezultati raziskav lesa v zgodnjerimskih naselbinah v Sloveniji ter bodo omogočile boljše datiranje stratigrafskih arheoloških plasti, gradbenih faz in posameznih najdb na širšem prostoru južno od Alp v obdobju kmalu po rimski zasedbi.

Most na Soci ranks among the most prominent prehistoric sites in Europe. It is mainly known for the extensive cemetery from the Early Iron Age, which was first investigated in the late 19th century and revealed over 6000 burials. The rapid growth of the modern village of Most na Soci again led to large-scale archaeological excavations in the 1970s. These were conducted in the span of eleven years and unearthed one of the most significant Iron Age settlements in Slovenia and the wider south-eastern Alpine region. The monographic publication on this settlement begins with a geographic outline of the site and its surroundings, which is followed by a detailed history of research complete with a list of contributions and reports on the subject published thus far. The main part of the book is dedicated to presenting the settlement structures that include thirty-six houses excavated in the eastern part of the modern village. It is the most comprehensive publication of an Iron Age settlement to date in Slovenia, which offers new insights into the living conditions of the Iron Age population inhabiting the area of Caput Adriae or the south-eastern Alps. The multitude of data gained from the excavations enabled a reconstruction of the settlement’s plan and provided an understanding of the construction methods and numerous technical details, revealing how drainage walls, dividing walls and foundations were built, and also revealing the appearance of the floors, wooden wall constructions, drainage ditches and pits used in different production processes (for instance metallurgy, pottery). The text is illustrated with 229 plans and photos that complement the detailed descriptions of the structures. The book concludes with the illustrations of small finds recovered in the houses, presented on a hundred plates. These predominantly consist of pottery sherds, but also include numerous stone, bone and metal items. Those of metal are particularly important because they are chronologically diagnostic and allow the archaeologists to precisely date individual houses and their phases, but also reveal the remarkable technical skills that the craftsmen of the day possessed.

We present new evidence of the intentional use of cereal by-products at Stare gmajne, an Eneolithic pile-dwelling site in Slovenia, dated approximately 3160–3100 cal bc. The chaff material, which had been used for tempering, was discovered inside one of the largest discovered loom-weights and analysed. Clay, which was used by the dwellers to make the weight, was tempered with cereal chaff to reinforce it. The practice of tempering, not necessarily for loom weights, has already been proven for earlier settlements, mostly in arid areas where firewood, grazing and building material were scarce. However, tempering has rarely been found in European prehistoric sites. More than 1,800 carbonised and half-carbonised, excellently preserved and well identifiable cereal plant macroremains in less than 1 l of waterlogged clayey material were sorted and counted. Among the recognized plant macroremains, barley rachis fragments and glume wheat (emmer and einkorn) by-products such as spikelet forks and glume bases prevailed. A few grains were also found. Cultivation of the main crops of emmer, einkorn and barley at Slovenian Eneolithic pile-dwelling sites was confirmed again. Among the chaff, a new “strange type” of Triticum dicoccum (emmer) spikelet forks was discovered. The size of the weight and the intentional local use of cereal by-products as temper suggest that late Neolithic (Eneolithic) pile-dwelling societies all around the Alps were highly organized and developed due to expansion of crop production and processing.

Plant and animal remains, which are found on archaeological sites and in lake/marsh sediments, are a good source of information about past economy, environment, food procurement, and the adaptation of people to changeable environmental conditions in various archaeological time periods. However, all these data need to be collected and interpreted. With the first manual presenting palynology, archaeobotany and archaeozoology fields of research in Slovenian language, this task should be more easily achievable. The book ('Environmental Archaeology and Palaeoecology: Palynology, Archaeobotany and Archaeozoology') is divided in two parts. The first, general part deals with the theoretical basis of palynology, archaeobotany and archaeozoology. Various types of plant and animal remains and processes associated with their deposition and preservation in the sediment are presented, which is followed by an outline of the main research methods and interpretative frameworks. In the second part of the volume several case studies illustrating how basic methods of environmental archaeology can be used to address various archaeological topics, are presented. Book can be used as a textbook for students of archaeology and other fields of research (e.g. biology and geology), as well as a manual for field archaeologists. It can be also of interest to researchers, who would like to include environmental studies in their research. Due to fluent text which can be easily understood, numerous figures and practical examples of case studies, the book is suitable also for non-specialist (lay) public. [Only in Slovenian]

We present the results of a plant macroremain study of the late Neolithic lakeshore settlement Stare gmajne (SG) at Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia, with cultural horizons that ended around 3330 and 3110 cal. b.c., as obtained by dendrochronological and radiocarbon dating of the most frequent construction timbers of Quercus sp. (oak) and Fraxinus sp. (ash). Fourteen systematically taken samples were investigated, using standard methods for studying waterlogged plant remains, which had been developed during lake dwelling research north of the Alps. Most of the remains were preserved in a waterlogged state, and we identified a total of 93 taxa. The most important cultivated plants were Triticum dicoccum (emmer), Hordeum vulgare (six-rowed naked barley), T. monococcum (einkorn), Linum usitatissimum (flax) and Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). The numerous possibly gathered plants also included Trapa natans (water chestnut) and Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris (wild grapevine). Chenopodium album (goosefoot) and Brassica rapa (turnip) with seeds/fruits rich in oil and starch were probably gathered as well. Comparisons of the Stare gmajne results with contemporary north Alpine sites (NA) showed, among other things, that Triticum durum/turgidum (tetraploid naked wheat), frequent at NA, was not found at SG. Trapa natans (water chestnut) was rare and Vitis (grapevine) was not found at NA. The observed differences in the wild plant spectra may have ecological causes, for example a warmer climate south of the Alps, but differences in cultivar spectra are more likely for cultural-historical reasons.

We present absolute dates of seven late Neolithic pile-dwellings on Ljubljansko barje, Slovenia. They were settled from ca. 3600 to 3332 (±10) and from 3160 to 3071 (±14) cal BC, as shown by investigations of wood using dendrochronology and radiocarbon wiggle-matching. We defined eleven periods of intensive tree felling (and building activities) and one major settlement gap (when no trees were felled) from 3332 to 3160 cal BC. A major settlement gap presumably also followed after 3071 cal BC (i.e., after the end date of the investigated sites). Our investigations included over 2500 pieces of wood, mainly from the piles on which the dwellings were built. Among important wooden artefacts were a wheel with axle (one of the oldest preserved wheels in the world) and two dugout canoes, all from the settlement phase from 3160 to 3100 cal BC. As shown by parallel studies, the economy in the sites was characterized by copper metallurgy, skilful wood processing and use, cultivation of domestic plants, gathering of wild plants, animal husbandry, hunting and fishing. The settlements were contemporaneous with a number of sites in the north of the Alps, the younger ones coincided with the lifetime of the Neolithic Iceman (Otzi). Since Ljubljansko barje has a strategic position at the crossroads between western central and (south) eastern Europe the presented absolute dates provide a basis for their comparison with other dated contemporaneous sites (in the west), to revise the chronology of similar sites in the (south) east (which are not yet exactly dated), and to evaluate their interconnection and roles in cultural development in prehistory.

The oldest Vitisvinifera ssp. L. (grape) pips (seeds) from Slovenian archaeological sites were found at the late Neolithic (Copper Age) pile-dwelling settlement of Hocevarica on the Ljubljansko barje and date to the 37th/36th century b.c. Various biometric studies were carried out to establish whether the grapes were wild or cultivated. A comparison of several morphological characteristics of grape pip samples was performed. Neolithic pips from Hocevarica, Roman pips from Vrhnika (1st century a.d.) and recent Slovenian cultivated grape pips were included in the study. According to the standard indices, the Neolithic Vitis pips were wild. In the case of the Roman pips, it was impossible to determine whether they were wild or cultivated, although they had most probably been cultivated. Since the morphology of grape pips varies considerably (as it did in the Neolithic, as well), the attempted identification of the subspecies Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris/vinifera, based on morphological characteristics alone, was unsatisfactory. Therefore, an attempt was made to analyse the DNA, which could help to resolve this question. Initial experiments on extraction of archaeological DNA and amplification of the chloroplast region were performed, but further optimization steps are needed to achieve successful amplification.