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Higher physical activity (PA) in children and adolescents is very important. One of its main predictors is a positive physical self-concept (Babic et al., 2014). PA behavior changed drastically during corona pandemic as for instance physical education (PE) was omitted widely in schools, and may therefore had a negative effect on PSC. In this study, we examine the relationship between the amount of PE during second pandemic lockdown in Germany on PSC, while considering effects of other types of PA. Data of N = 1439 German children and adolescents (6-18y, 704 fem.) from the ‘Motorik-Modul’ study (MoMo) were analyzed. All participants filled in an online questionnaire during the second lockdown of the corona pandemic, including demographic information, PSC (global, strength and endurance), and PE hours and PA (Sports Club, Leisure Time). Covariates were age, sex, and their interactions. Linear mixed models were used. PE during lockdown did not significantly relate to any PSC domain. For Sports Club PA, however, interaction with sex were significant for all PSC domains, indicating stronger positive relationships in female compared to male individuals. In addition, older individuals showed a stronger relationship between Leisure Time PA and PSCglobal and PSCendurance as well as between Sports Club PA and PSCstrength compared to younger individuals. PE classes during lockdown had no effect on PSC. In contrast, higher PA in sports clubs and leisure time seemed to promote a positive PSC during lockdown II, particularly in female children and adolescents. More specialized interventions should be implemented to improve PSC by PE, and availability of sports clubs and daily activities might be expanded.

Negative mental health effects of the first months of corona pandemic and associated lockdowns (LD) are evident for children and adolescents. Given supportive effects of physical activity (PA) beyond pandemics, this study aims to determine (1) whether health-related quality of life (HRQoL) decreased during prolonged LD and (2) if PA was a resource to maintain HRQoL. Data of a German representative sample of N = 1,322 children and adolescents from the independent in-depth Corona-study of the ‘Motorik-Modul’ study (MoMo) were analyzed. Participants filled in online surveys at t0 = Pre pandemic (2018 – 2020), t1 = LD I (04/2020) and t2 = LD II (02/2021), including socio-demographic information, PA and HRQoL. Linear mixed effects models were conducted to predict LD effects and their interaction with PA on HRQoL. Age, sex, parents’ income, education, and job and four factors of living environment as well as their interactions with LD were added to investigate potential risk factors. There are significant main effects on HRQoL from pre to LD I and to LD II as well as for PA. PA had a positive interaction effect on HRQoL from pre to LD II, but not to LD I. Other significant main effects show higher HRQoL for higher parents’ income, better walking opportunities in living environment controlled for age and sex. From pre to LD I positive effects exist for parents’ income. HRQoL decreased during both LDs while PA shows a generally positive effect on HRQoL. The positive effect of PA on HRQoL was particularly pronounced during LDII. Policy debates about social distancing instruments like homeschooling need an ongoing attention to PA and their effects on mental health. Further, especially low-income families suffered from LD I and need to be addressed particularly in future crisis.

In response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, various measures were taken to contain its spread, including restrictions on physical education and sports clubs. These measures substantially limited children's physical activity behaviors and may have compromised their motor development. Such compromising effects may be particularly prevalent among children from lower socioeconomic background (SEB) who tend to be less physically active than higher SEB peers. In this study, the impact of COVID-19 pandemic-related restrictions on children's motor development was investigated with respect to children's SEB within the PESCov DFG project. Data from 68,996 children from a metropolitan region in Germany (Age: 8.83 years +- 0.56, range: 6.4-13 years, 35,270 female, 51.1 %) assessed between 2011/2012 and 2022/2023 were analyzed as part of the longitudinal cohort study “Berlin hat Talent”. Assessment took place before and after the onset of the pandemic using the German Motor Fitness Test. The test includes assessments of various motor skills covering endurance, strength, coordination, and flexibility. Demographic variables (e.g., age, gender) were collected via questionnaires. SEB was derived on school level, which was determined using the official school type classifications of the state of Berlin. Cross-classified linear mixed effect models were fitted to account for hierarchies in the data, with individual test values (level 1) being nested in motor domains (level 2a) and in participants (level 2b) and participants being nested in schools (level 3b). Outcome measure was motor skill performance transformed from German reference percentiles to z-scores per motor skill. The effects of Time (pre, post LD I, post LD II), Motor Domain, and SEB (continuous, -2 - 2) were estimated while controlling for Age, Gender, and Secular Trends. Main effects of Motor Domain, Time, and SEB were significant. Further, a significant Time x Motor Domain interaction revealed that motor skills differentially developed from during the pandemic. Coordination, strength, and flexibility decreased, while endurance increased. SEB had a negative effect on overall motor development of third graders. However, this effect varied between motor domains (coordination = endurance > strength > flexibility). Totally, motor skills were on average about 4 percentile points lower after lockdown I, and the effect of the pandemic was stronger after controlling for secular trend. Results suggest highly differential effects of the pandemic on children's motor development, which should be considered when recovering motor skills in the post-pandemic era. To avert these trends and the lifelong consequences of impaired motor development in childhood, comprehensive monitoring of children’s motor performance levels is needed as well as support programs for children with compromised motor performance, particularly for children from low SEBs.

Childhood obesity is associated with various adverse health outcomes. Restrictive measures to contain the spread of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, like lockdowns and school closures, affected children’s daily structure, physical activity, dietary habits, and sleep quality, possibly exacerbating risk factors for childhood obesity and higher body mass index (BMI) in children. In particular, as poor socioeconomic conditions tend to favor obesogenic environments, children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (SEBs) may have been at relatively higher risk for elevated BMI levels following pandemic measures. In this study, the impact of measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic on the BMI of third graders was investigated with regard to children’s SEB. Data from 41,728 children (8.84 ± 0.56 years, 20,431 female) were collected in the context of the longitudinal cohort study “Berlin hat Talent” and analyzed as part of the PESCov DFG project. Children were tested either before the pandemic (preCOVID: Sept2017 - March2020, n = 26,314), or following the first (post_"LD I" : Aug2020 - Dec2020, n = 6,657) or second lockdown in Germany (post_"LD II" : Aug2021 - Jan2022, n = 8,757). Demographic variables were collected via questionnaires. SEB was based on the official school type classification of the state of Berlin. Linear mixed effect models were computed to account for the hierarchical nature of the data, i.e. children (level 1) nested in schools (level 2). Outcome measures were age- and sex-adjusted BMI standard deviation scores (SDS). Independent variables were Time (preCOVID, post_"LD I" , post_"LD II" ), SEB (continuous, -2 - 2), and the interaction thereof. Covariates were Age, Gender, and Month of Test. Significant effects of Time (p < .05) and SEB (p < .001) revealed elevated BMIs in post_"LD I" and post_"LD II" compared to preCOVID cohorts and higher BMIs for children with lower SEB. A significant Time x SEB interaction (p < .01) indicated that the effect of SEB on children’s BMI increased in response to lockdowns, especially in post_"LD II" . Results suggest that the COVID-19-related measures lead to increased BMI in children, and that children of lower SEB were at particular risk for higher BMIs following lockdowns. These findings denote an alarming trend and emphasize the necessity for countermeasures to reduce lockdown-related BMI increments in children, particularly in low SEB areas. Authorities are called into action to promote physical activity of children and establish post-pandemic offers to counteract the risk of increasing rates of childhood obesity and related adverse health outcomes.

Background Sedentary, digital screen time in children represents a major concern due to its detrimental effect on children’s development. Nowadays, however, advances in technology allow children to actively interact with a digital screen using their whole body (e.g., exergaming), providing potential for movement learning. Exergaming technology may prove valuable in supporting children’s development of foundational movement skills (FMS). Objective To examine the impact of exergaming technology on the development of FMS in children 3–12 years through a skill acquisition lens. Methods Systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Web of Science, PubMed, PsycINFO and SPORTDiscus databases were searched between 2007 and 2022. Studies were eligible if they conducted an exergaming intervention to improve FMS in typically developing children aged three to twelve with a control group, using a baseline and post-intervention assessment design. FMS outcomes were pooled with a random effects model. Results Nine trials (4 RCTs, 2 cluster RCTs and 3 non-randomized trials) of varying methodological quality (2 had low, 6 had some concerns, and 1 had a high risk of bias) were included, with a total of 783 participants. FMS outcome measures across studies comprised object control skills, locomotor skills, coordination, agility, balance and balance-related skills. The meta-analysis included showed a small positive effect in favor of the exergaming intervention (r = 0.24 [95% confidence interval: 0.11–0.36]). Conclusion Our results indicate that screen-based technology that requires an active engagement of the child can promote the development of FMS. Considering that FMS are the foundation of a child’s physical, mental, health and academic development, this finding could lead to a reshaping of the perception of digital screen-based technology and the role this should play in children’s lives. We speculate that the observed benefits most likely depend upon the quality of information–movement coupling specificity and the motor learning strategies built into the exergame and/or the intervention design. We do not believe this is dependent on the type of FMS being performed or the amount of practice. We recommend therefore that future research should examine how practitioners (school teachers, coaches and parents) can facilitate the interaction between a child and exergaming technology.

The meaningful assessment of motor competence is well positioned for school-based curricular emphasis, through the integration of motor skills and movement patterns in both primary, and second leve...

ZusammenfassungAufgrund ihrer Einfachheit und Nutzerfreundlichkeit wird für die Erfassung der subjektiven Beanspruchungswahrnehmung in Training und Wettkampf bevorzugt die Category Ratio Scale (CR10-Skala) oder eine daran angelehnte Ein-Item-Skala eingesetzt. Die CR10-Skala stellt eine nicht-lineare, leicht positiv beschleunigte Funktion bezogen auf die Beanspruchung dar, die in der autorisierten deutschen Fassung mit „Anstrengungsempfinden“ übersetzt wird. Allerdings ist festzuhalten, dass die existierenden Skalen keine vollständigen Stufenbezeichnungen beinhalten und/oder die Stufenbezeichnungen Überschneidungen mit verwandten Konstrukten, z. B. Ermüdung zulassen. Die Anstrengungsskala Sport (ASS) zeichnet sich demgegenüber durch vollständige Stufenbezeichnungen und begriffliche Klarheit mit der komparativen Deklination des Adjektivs anstrengend aus. Auf der Grundlage einer rationalen Konstruktionsstrategie sowie einer systematischen Item-Analyse kann gezeigt werden, dass die Voraussetzungen für die Verwendung der ASS als Verhältnisskala gegeben sind, die eine zuverlässige und inhaltlich eindeutige Messung der Anstrengung gestattet.

The perception of one’s own motor skills can be an important mediator between motor skills and physical activity in childhood. For early childhood, questionnaires are available to measure the self-perception of motor skills (locomotion and object-control) via pictorial scales with one item representing each skill. During childhood, self-perception develops and becomes more complex and differentiated (the physical self-concept). Therefore, the aim of this study was to create a questionnaire in order to adequately assess children’s self-perceptions of fundamental movement skills. A 40-item questionnaire was tested in a pilot study (N = 94) for primary school grades 2–4. Based on the psychometric results, a reduced 24-item questionnaire, Perceived Motor Competence in Childhood (PMC-C), was completed by 197 children between 7 and 13 years of age. The results indicate construct validity (χ2/df = 1.76, N = 197, p

Individuals and institutions around the world have been affected by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Herein, we investigate the role of basic (Big Five and HEXACO) and specific (Dark Factor of Personality, Narcissistic Rivalry, and Narcissistic Admiration) personality traits for 17 criteria related to COVID-19, grouped into (i) personal perceptions in terms of risks and worries about the disease, (ii) behavioral adjustments in terms of following health recommendations and hoarding, and (iii) societal evaluations in terms of the appropriateness of different measures and feelings of social cohesion. (Internal) Meta-analytic results across five samples from two countries (overall N = 19,718) show—next to gender and age effects—the importance of several traits, including Emotionality/Neuroticism for personal perceptions and anti- or prosocial traits for behavior in line with health recommendations. The investigation highlights the importance of individual differences in uncertain and changing situations in general and during the COVID-19 pandemic in particular.

While football/soccer is the most influential sport in the world, it is surprising that developmental sequences of forceful kicking have not been adequately described and validated in the literature. The purpose of this study was to explore potential developmental sequences for forceful kicking using a prelongitudinal screening method. Data were derived from videotapes of 255 children (girls n = 138, boys: n = 117), ages 4–11 years. Seven potential component sequences in their respective developmental order were initially proposed based on biomechanical and motor developmental principles. Each participant was digitally videoed performing five kicks with maximal effort. Trained research staff coded the initial seven components for each kick and the mode of each participant’s five kicks was used for data analysis. Component level probability curves for each component sequence across age were evaluated using the threshold based generalized partial credit model (Muraki, 1992) within the item response theory framework. As developmental theory would indicate, component levels generally increased with age for most components. Six component ordinal sequence progressions met model requirements (Rel = 0.88, item fit; p > 0.05). Ordinal levels for two components ( Knee action and Follow-through) were altered based on initial empirical model structure fit and the Ball contact component was removed based on a lack of model fit. This study provides sufficient cross-sectional evidence for six component developmental sequences that adequately describe the development of kicking using cross-sectional data. Longitudinal data are required to provide further developmental validation for these sequences.

ZusammenfassungSowohl die Motorische Leistungsfähigkeit (MLF) als auch das physische Selbstkonzept (PSK) sind bereits im frühen Kindesalter mit verschiedenen Faktoren gelingender Entwicklung wie beispielsweise der körperlichen Aktivität und dem globalen Selbstwert verbunden. Die Frage nach altersabhängigen wechselseitigen Effekten zwischen der MLF, dem PSK und der physischen Gesundheit, zum Beispiel dem BMI, ist im Kindesalter jedoch bislang unzureichend untersucht. Ziel dieser Studie ist es, zunächst die Stabilität der MLF, des PSK und des BMI sowie das Realitätsmaß zwischen der tatsächlichen motorischen Leistung und der subjektiven Selbsteinschätzung zu untersuchen und anschließend zu prüfen, ob über die Spanne des Kindesalters reziproke Effekte zwischen diesen Faktoren bestehen. In dem BMBF-geförderten Projekt „Gesund aufwachsen“ wurden die motorische Leistung, das PSK sowie der BMI als Faktor der physischen Gesundheit von insgesamt 1378 Kindern aus neun Kindergärten (n = 403) sowie der ersten (n = 456) und dritten Klasse (n = 519, insgesamt acht Grundschulen) am Anfang und Ende eines Schuljahres erfasst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen bereits im frühen bis mittleren Kindesalter erhöhte Prävalenzraten für Übergewicht und Schwächen in der MLF. Der BMI erweist sich in allen drei Altersklassen als sehr stabil (β = 0,81–0,88). Zudem zeigt sich, dass sowohl das Stabilitätsmaß der motorischen Leistung und des PSK als auch das Realitätsmaß im Vergleich verschiedener Altersklassen im Kindergarten geringer ist als in Klasse 1 und Klasse 3 (Kindergarten: β = 0,36–0,82; p p p

Previous studies investigating the relationship between motor skill, physical activity and fitness in children have not thoroughly considered the role of self-perception. Therefore, the study aim was to test a theoretical framework, which considered both actual and perceived motor skill as well as actual and perceived fitness. Potential moderating effects of sex and country were considered. Data on motor skill, fitness, as well as self-perception of motor skill and fitness were collected from 145 Australian children and 214 German children (age range 7 to 10 years). For actual motor skill and fitness, mean differences for sex, age and country were found. For perceived motor performance (perceived motor skill and perceived fitness) no mean differences were found for age. Path analyses were performed. The final model showed significant relations between actual performance (object control skill, fitness) and perceived performance (object control skill, fitness). All model paths had low to moderate regression weights with the lowest relationship reported between actual and perceived fitness. Sex and country showed no effects. This integrated approach has led to a better understanding of the relationship between children's perceived and objective performance, and cultural differences within them.

Self-perceptions such as perceived motor competence and psychosocial wellbeing have been identified as important to children's physical activity. The study's purpose was to explore whether perceived motor competence and psychosocial wellbeing were determinants of physical activity, one year after a baseline assessment.Longitudinal study.A total of 134 children (65.7% boys, 34.3% girls) aged 6-7 years at baseline (2016), and 7-8 years at follow-up (2017) were included in this study. Pearson's correlations assessed associations at baseline and follow-up between moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) (accelerometers) and (i) total perceived motor competence and subdomains (the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence) and (ii) psychosocial wellbeing and sub-domains - KidKINDL KINDer Lebensqualitätsfragebogen: Children Quality of Life Questionnaire (KINDLBaseline perceived object control skills was associated with MVPA at follow-up (r=0.38, p0.001), but perceived locomotor skills were not. Self-esteem was the only subdomain of psychosocial wellbeing that demonstrated significant association with MVPA at baseline (r=0.21, p0.05). Perceived object control (B=1.36, p=0.019, 95% CI [0.23, 2.50]) and self-esteem (B=0.32, p=0.001, 95% CI [0.13, 0.50]) positively predicted MVPA; albeit with small effects.Focusing on improving children's perceived object control and self-reported self-esteem may contribute to children's physical activity participation.

Background Before an intervention can be implemented to improve pain-related self-efficacy, assessment is required. The aim of the present study was to provide a systematic review on which self-efficacy scales are being used among patients with back pain and to evaluate their psychometric properties. Methods A systematic search was executed in January 2019 and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2009 checklist served as a guide for conducting the study. Electronic databases included Cinahl, Medline, PubMed, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, and SportDiscus. Publications in English or German language that focused on the adult patient population with back pain and which provided validation or reliability measures on pain-related self-efficacy were included. Results A total of 3512 records were identified resulting in 671 documents after duplicates were removed. A total of 233 studies were screened full-text, and a total of 47 studies addressing 19 different measures of pain-related self-efficacy were included in the quality analysis. The most commonly used instruments were the Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire and the Chronic Pain Self-Efficacy Scale. All studies reported internal consistency, but many studies lacked other aspects of reliability and validity. Conclusions Further research should focus on assessing validity and interpretability of these questionnaires, especially in pain-related target groups. Researchers should select questionnaires that are most appropriate for their study aims and the back pain population and contribute to further validation of these scales to best predict future behavior and develop intervention programs. This systematic review aids selection of pain-related assessment tools in back pain both in research and practice.

Zum Talentscreening im Sport werden Testbatterien eingesetzt, die unterschiedliche sportmotorische Fertigkeiten sowie entwicklungsrelevante Parameter erheben. Standardauswertungsverfahren fuhren in der Regel zur Einordnung der Getesteten in zumeist funfstufige Leistungsklassen. Insbesondere bei grosen Stichproben werden allerdings Verfahrensweisen benotigt, die auch innerhalb der „besten Gruppe“ und „schwachsten Gruppe“ noch zuverlassig differenzieren. Dies gelingt z. B. im Projekt BERLIN HAT TALENT mit Verfahren, die auf multikriteriellen und unscharfen mathematischen Theorien und Methoden beruhen. Dabei ist hervorzuheben, dass subjektive Theorien und Wissensstande von Trainer*innen, Lehrer*innen und Sportwissenschaftler*innen explizit mit einbezogen werden konnen. Dies geschieht auf Basis diskursiver Validierungen und der Konstruktion von Bewertungsfunktionen, die auch als sogenannte Zugehorigkeitsfunktionen fur Fuzzy-Sets interpretiert werden konnen. Die vorgestellten multiattributiven Entscheidungsmodelle zeigen unter Einbeziehung des Expertenwissens den Mehrwert dieses Vorgehens auf und konnen mit Hilfe einer interaktiven Software transparent nachvollzogen werden.

High levels of perceived motor competence and low levels of actual motor competence in youth populations have been reported world-wide. Both perceived and actual motor competence have been deemed independent correlates of health and physical activity (PA) behavior, and past research has indicated that their alignment may be linked to more consistent PA. Moreover, there is potential for a movement-based intervention to strengthen the alignment between perceived and actual motor competence, perhaps then guiding future health, PA, and community sport engagement globally. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an 8-week movement-based intervention on increasing the alignment (i.e., veridicality) between PMC and AMC among Irish adolescent youth. We collected data on adolescents ( n = 324; females = 149; M age = 14.5, SD = 0.88 years) across six second-level schools in Ireland, including measurements of actual and perceived, motor competence at pre- and post-intervention. We observed low levels of actual in contrast to high levels of perceived motor competence. We found a small but significant veridical alignment between perceived and actual motor competence, but there was no intervention effect on alignment. Future research should prioritize a longer intervention duration that targets student learning and understanding in order to develop veridical perceptions in adolescents that might sustain their participation in PA.

Background: The dynamic nature of physical education (PE) requires careful consideration of lesson planning and delivery in order to promote health and wellbeing and to achieve various learning goals. One such goal is promoting personal and social development to support students to value and lead a healthy and active lifestyle, especially during transition into adolescence. In order to design learning environments that support students' engagement in PE, it is important to understand how outcomes such as motor competence (MC) influence motivation for PE. There are two approaches to understand MC, actual and perceived MC, and both have implications for healthy lifestyles in childhood and adolescence. Therefore, this study examined associations of actual and perceived MC with young adolescents' motivation for PE. Method: A sample of 236 students 11–14 years of age (M = 13.01, SD =.72) participated in the study. Assessments included actual MC (Körperkoordinations test for Kinder; KTK), perceived MC (self-administered form of the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence; PMSC) and motivation for PE (Perceived Locus of Causality Scale; PLOC). Polynomial regression with Response Surface Analyses were conducted to examine the influence of actual and perceived MC on motivation for PE. Findings: The results showed weak-to-moderate positive associations of actual and perceived MC with students' motivation for PE. Perceived MC explained about 12% of the variance of student's self-determined motivation towards PE. This effect was larger in students with lower levels of perceived MC compared to students with higher levels of perceived MC. Discussion: Taking into account that both actual and perceived MC are synergistically related but only perceived MC explains self-determined motivation, our results suggest that perceived MC is an important factor to consider when attempting to promote an active and healthy lifestyle. Using the developmental model of motor competence [Stodden et al. 2008. "A Developmental Perspective on the Role of Motor Skill Competence in Physical Activity: An Emergent Relationship." Quest 60 (2): 290–306] and self-determination theory [Deci and Ryan 2000. "The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior." Psychological Inquiry 11 (4): 227–268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01], we discuss the findings in relation to the importance of considering perceived MC as an explicit outcome in the PE curriculum. Conclusion: During early adolescence, PE programs should not only focus on teaching movement skills but also fostering perceived MC in order to promote motivation for PE, especially among students with lower levels of self-perception. For this, pedagogical approaches such as need supportive teaching derived from self-determination theory can be used to help students become competent, confident and motivated movers.

This study aimed to examine the associations between play behaviors during preschool recess and foundational movement skills (FMS) in typically developing preschool children. One hundred and thirty-three children (55% male, mean age 4.7 ± 0.5 years) from twelve preschools were video-assessed for six locomotor and six object-control FMS using the Champs Motor Skill Protocol. A modified System for Observing Children’s Activity and Relationships during Play assessed play behaviors during preschool recess. Associations between the composition of recess play behaviors with FMS were analyzed using compositional data analysis and linear regression. Results: Relative to time spent in other types of play behaviors, time spent in play without equipment was positively associated with total and locomotor skills, while time spent in locomotion activities was negatively associated with total and locomotor skills. No associations were found between activity level and group size play behavior compositions and FMS. The findings suggest that activity type play behaviors during recess are associated with FMS. While active games without equipment appear beneficial, preschool children may need a richer playground environment, including varied fixed and portable equipment, to augment the play-based development of FMS.

Children’s positive perceived motor competence (PMC) provides motivation for physical activity. Theoretically young children (

Purpose Motor assessments generally produce a single motor competence score based on the general motor ability hypothesis, which states that motor competence is a one-dimensional trait underlying a wide range of motor skills. Yet, it is unclear whether the general motor ability hypothesis holds true in middle childhood, which is marked by an increased participation in sports and other types of physical activity. Therefore, the aim of the study was to evaluate the structure of motor competence in middle childhood using a test battery with a large item set. Method A cross-sectional design was used to collect motor competence data of 2538 children aged 6-11 years. Participants completed the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2nd Edition Short Form (BOT-2 SF), which consists of 14 skill items and covers different motor domains. In accordance with the BOT-2 SF manual, point scores were computed for each item. Polytomous Rasch analyses (ie, general partial credit model) were carried out to investigate the construct of motor competence. Results Rasch analyses revealed different items with unordered threshold parameters, due to ceiling effects. However, after empirically rescaling the category width for each item, follow-up analyses revealed a one-dimensional structure with 12 items. Conclusion The study provides some evidence of a one-dimensional construct (ie, motor competence) underlying motor assessment in middle childhood. Continued efforts should be made to ensure that valid composite scores are used in motor assessment and to better understand the development of motor competence across childhood and into adolescence and adulthood.

Objectives To examine the effects of different protocols of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on VO2max improvements in healthy, overweight/obese and athletic adults, based on the classifications of work intervals, session volumes and training periods. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods PubMed, Scopus, Medline, and Web of Science databases were searched up to April 2018. Inclusion criteria were randomised controlled trials; healthy, overweight/obese or athletic adults; examined pre- and post-training VO2max/peak; HIIT in comparison to control or moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) groups. Results Fifty-three studies met the eligibility criteria. Overall, the degree of change in VO2max induced by HIIT varied by populations (SMD = 0.41–1.81, p Conclusions Short-intervals (≤30 s), low-volume (≤5 min) and short-term (≤4 weeks) HIIT represent effective and time-efficient strategies for developing VO2max, especially for the general population. To maximize the training effects on VO2max, long-interval (≥2 min), high-volume (≥15 min) and moderate to long-term (≥4–12 weeks) HIIT are recommended.

The pictorial scale of Physical Self-Concept in Children (P-PSC-C) is a relatively new instrument for investigating physical self-concept in childhood. The current study aims to examine the validity and reliability of the Spanish version of the P-PSC-C, and also to analyse the validity according to the children’s age. A sample of 365 primary school age (M = 9.21, SD = 1.92) students participated; divided in two groups, those aged 9 or younger and those 10-11 years old. Surveys were used to assess perceived physical concept individually. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with diagonally weighted least square estimator specifically designed for ordinal data and a scaled test statistic was conducted. Ordinal alpha using a polychoric correlation matrix and Kendall’s τ were used to analyse reliability and correlation between items, respectively. The results of the CFA showed a one-dimensional excellent fit for the whole sample. According to the age groups, the CFA revealed that the item assessing flexibility had a low factor loading for older children ( = .11). Weak invariance was shown for gender. Item statistics and reliability values were otherwise good. This study shows a high potential for the pictorial scale to be suitable for the given age groups in measuring physical self-concept. Resumen La escala pictográfica de Autoconcepto Físico en niños y niñas es un instrumento novedoso para investigar el autoconcepto físico en la niñez. Este estudio pretende analizar la validez y fiabilidad de la versión española de la escala pictográfica de Autoconcepto Físico en niños y niñas, también según su edad. En el estudio participó una muestra de 365 niños y niñas (M = 9.21, D.T. = 1.92) de centros educativos de infantil y primaria que fueron divididos en dos grupos, aquellos de 9 años o menores y los de 10-11 años. Se realizaron entrevistas individuales para medir el autoconcepto físico. Se aplicaron pruebas de análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) con estimaciones específicas ponderadas de mínimos cuadrados diseñado específicamente para datos ordinales. Para analizar la fiabilidad y correlación entre ítems, se utilizó una matriz policórica de correlación y la τ de Kendall, respectivamente. Los resultados del AFC para toda la muestra de estudio mostraron un ajuste unidimensional excelente. Respecto a la validez según los grupos de edad, los AFC mostraron que el ítem de flexibilidad tuvo una carga factorial baja e insuficiente en los niños de mayor edad ( = .11). Según el sexo, la invarianza fue débil. Los datos estadísticos de los ítems y la fiabilidad fueron buenos. Este estudio muestra un alto potencial para la utilización de la escala pictográfica para medir el autoconcepto físico en los grupos de edad analizados. La escala pictográfica de autoconcepto físico es relativamente nueva para estudiar el autoconcepto físico en la niñez.

It is commonly assumed that sport plays an important role for national identity. However, empirical research has primarily focused on sport’s role for emotional-affectice rather than cognitive aspe...

The aim of this special issue in Scandinavian Journal of Science & Medicine in Sports was to provide an update of research examining motor competence and physical fitness in childhood and adolescence from a longitudinal perspective. Motor competence and physical fitness play an important role in children and adolescents' overall health and growth. Motor competence refers to an individual's degree of proficiency in performing various motor skills and is underpinned by coordination and control. Developing adequate levels of competence in fundamental motor/movement skills is critical for all children as they form the foundation for more complex skills used in games, sports and other types of physical activities across the lifespan. Physical fitness refers to an individual's capacity to perform physical activity and includes components such as cardiorespiratory fitness, musculoskeletal fitness (i.e., muscular endurance and strength), and flexibility. Motor competence and physical fitness are correlated in young people.

Digitalization and the availability of smartphones have changed the way people communicate and how they gain information about themselves and their environment. In health and lifestyle contexts, fitness apps have become widely used tools to track and enhance health behavior such as physical activity. Fitness apps offer various functions, such as tracking of activities, steps, and calories. Self-tracking via fitness apps can entail both important benefits and risks. On the one hand, fitness app usage can contribute to health behavior, e.g., to enhance physical activity and to help establishing health-related routines. However, self-tracking via fitness apps can also entail certain risks, such as privacy issues or biased measurements. Beyond the background of these risks, trust emerges as an essential factor to understand the trajectories of healthy and maintained fitness app usage. In this work, an overview of the practice of self-tracking is provided including the specific aspects of self-tracking via fitness apps is provided. Then, risks and benefits that are associated with self-tracking via fitness apps are presented. A trust-based model is introduced that can assist to understand the trajectories of fitness app usage. Finally, practice-relevant implications for safe, healthy, and maintained self-tracking via fitness apps are derived.

BACKGROUND: An understanding of how motor skill performance levels relate to energy expenditure (EE) is an important, yet relatively unexplored topic that may better inform physical activity interventions. AIM: This study examined the impact of motor competence (MC) on EE during the performance of object control skills in children and young adults. METHOD: Forty-two children (Mage 8.1 years) and 40 young adults (Mage = 23.4 years) completed sessions of throwing and kicking at varying intensity intervals. Polynomial regressions with response surface analysis were conducted to analyze the impact of process- and product-oriented MC levels on EE. RESULTS: Moderate positive associations among process-oriented motor competence levels and EE were demonstrated in all trial interval conditions with stronger associations shown for shorter trial intervals. CONCLUSION: Individuals’ movement quality (process) demonstrated greater associations with EE than performance product (speed), especially with higher intensity skill practice. These results provide additional evidence of the positive impact that MC has on the health benefits of physical activity, specifically during participation in activities that inherently require repeated performance of object control skills.

The Self-Determination Theory has been applied to explain behaviour in numerous contexts and cultures. In the exercise context, causality orientations (autonomy, control, impersonal) are important to describe individual differences in initiation and maintenance of health behaviour. The assessment of exercise causality orientations can be a key element to improve predictions of motivated health and exercise behaviour. Nevertheless, a scale to measure exercise causality orientations has not been established in German yet. Thus, it was the aim of the present work to translate the Exercise Causality Orientations Scale to German and to test it throughout three studies. The German G-ECOS questionnaire was cross-validated via confirmatory factor analyses in two separate samples. Both Study 1 (n = 306, 72.60% female, age M = 26.00, SD = 5.66; CFI = .96) and Study 2 (n = 320, 70.94% female, age M = 29.00, SD = 3.54; CFI = .95) indicated a good model fits. In a further Study 3 (n = 548, 62.50% female, age M = 30.17, SD = 11.91), the relations between exercise causality orientations and other SDT related constructs were examined. The correlations indicated positive associations between autonomy causality orientation and intrinsic regulation, intrinsic exercise participation goals, and exercise basic needs satisfaction. Overall, the assessment of exercise causality orientations can be useful in analysing and potentially predicting motivated exercise behaviour.

Fitness apps are promising digital tools to support self-tracking and physical activity. Specific app functions such as normalized step targets represent controlling conditions that can affect controlled vs. autonomous motivation and thus motivated physical activity. It was the aim of this study to examine the effects of self-tracking via a fitness app and the implementation of a normalized step target on aspects of motivation and physical activity by using Self-Determination Theory as a theoretical framework.In a six-week RCT (N = 152; age M = 24.43, SD = 4.61), participants in two groups were provided with fitness app devices to track their physical activity. Participants in one group (ET) had a normalized step target of 10,000 whereas the other group (ENT) had not any step target. Participants in a third control group tracked their physical activity without fitness app support. Self-reported physical activity, basic needs satisfaction, and motivation regulation were assessed.Physical activity increased in the fitness tracker groups compared to the control group. Moderate physical activity and autonomy need satisfaction increased in the ENT group. Identified motivation decreased in the ET and control groups and introjected motivation decreased in the control group. Amotivation increased in the ENT group. Conclusively, self-tracking via fitness apps can support physical activity, and normalized step targets can undermine motivation. Lack of normalized targets can support autonomy need satisfaction and physical activity but can also foster amotivation. Thus, it is advised to support autonomous goal setting in fitness app users.

©American Psychological Association, 2020. This paper is not the copy of record and may not exactly replicate the authoritative document published in the APA journal. Please do not copy or cite without author's permission. The final article is available, upon publication, at: https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/bul0000220 To what extent are research results influenced by subjective decisions that scientists make as they design studies? Fifteen research teams independently designed studies to answer five original research questions related to moral judgments, negotiations, and implicit cognition. Participants from 2 separate large samples (total N 15,000) were then randomly assigned to complete 1 version of each study. Effect sizes varied dramatically across different sets of materials designed to test the same hypothesis: Materials from different teams rendered statistically significant effects in opposite directions for 4 of 5 hypotheses, with the narrowest range in estimates being d = 0.37 to 0.26. Meta-analysis and a Bayesian perspective on the results revealed overall support for 2 hypotheses and a lack of support for 3 hypotheses. Overall, practically none of the variability in effect sizes was attributable to the skill of the research team in designing materials, whereas considerable variability was attributable to the hypothesis being tested. In a forecasting survey, predictions of other scientists were significantly correlated with study results, both across and within hypotheses. Crowdsourced testing of research hypotheses helps reveal the true consistency of empirical support for a scientific claim.

Individuals and institutions around the world have been affected by the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Herein, we investigate the role of basic (Big Five and HEXACO) and specific (Dark Factor of Personality, Narcissistic Rivalry and Admiration) personality traits for 17 criteria related to COVID-19, grouped into (i) personal perceptions in terms of risks and worries about the disease, (ii) behavioral adjustments in terms of following health recommendations and hoarding, and (iii) societal evaluations in terms of the appropriateness of different measures and feelings of social cohesion. (Internal) Meta-analytic results across five samples from two countries (overall N = 19,718) show—next to gender and age effects—the importance of several traits, including Emotionality/Neuroticism for personal perceptions and anti- or prosocial traits for behavior in line with health recommendations. The investigation highlights the importance of individual differences in uncertain and changing situations in general and during the COVID-19 pandemic in particular.

The purpose was to identify classes of different developmental trajectories of BMI and testing them for differences in motor competence (MC) and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), in children and adolescents (4 to 13 years of age). This was a 5 years' longitudinal study with six cohorts. One hundred and forty-seven children (69 girls) divided into six cohorts participated. At baseline, the youngest and the oldest cohorts had 4 and 11 years of age, respectively. Height and weight were assessed, and BMI was calculated. MC was assessed with KTK and TGMD-2, and CRF was assessed with one-mile run/walk. Developmental trajectories of BMI were identified using latent class linear-mixed modelling. Latent class membership was explained according to covariates of MC and CRF. Two meaningful classes were identified. Class 1 (78.92% of the participants) showed lower initial BMI and a lower slope compared to class 2 (21.08% of the participants) (all ps < 0.001). Class membership only predicted trajectories in motor coordination, with children in class 1 having a better development.In conclusion, this study identified two meaningful trajectories for children based on their BMI development across five time points. In line with previous research, children with slower increasing BMI showed better motor coordination improvements. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Luis Lopes is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (CEECIND/01089/2017 and FCT/UIDB/00617/2020); Rute Santos is supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (CEECIND/01069/2017 and FCT/UIDB/00617/2020); Jorge Mota, Carla Moreira, Cesar Agostinis-Sobrinho, Pedro Silva and Eduarda Sousa-Sa are supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT/UIDB/00617/2020); Erik Sigmund is supported by grant No. 19-03276S from the Czech Science Foundation; Irene Esteban-Cornejo is supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (RTI2018-095284-J-100) and by the Spanish Ministry of of Science and Innovation (RYC2019-027287-I); Jaime Carcamo-Oyarzun is supported by the National Commission for Scientific Research and Technology of Chile (CONICYT-FONDECYT 11170525); Jonatan Ruiz is supported by the University of Granada Plan Propio de Investigacion 2016 (Excellence actions: Unit of Excellence on Exercise and Health [UCEES]), by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), by the Junta de Andalucia, Consejeria de Conocimiento, Investigacion y Universidades (ref. SOMM17/6107/UGR); Antonio Garcia-Hermoso is a Miguel Servet Fellow (Instituto de Salud Carlos III-FSE, CP18/0150)., Lack of physical activity is a global public health problem causing not only morbidity and premature mortality, but it is also a major economic burden worldwide. One of the cornerstones of a physically active lifestyle is Motor Competence (MC). MC is a complex biocultural attribute and therefore, its study requires a multi-sectoral, multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary approach. MC is a growing area of research, especially in children and adolescents due to its positive association with a plethora of health and developmental outcomes. Many questions, however, remain to be answered in this field of research, with regard to: (i) Health and Developmental-related Associations of MC; (ii) Assessment of MC; (iii) Prevalence and Trends of MC; (iv) Correlates and Determinants of MC; (v) MC Interventions, and (vi) Translating MC Research into Practice and Policy. This paper presents a narrative review of the literature, summarizing current knowledge, identifying key research gaps and presenting questions for future investigation on MC in children and adolescents. This is a collaborative effort from the International Motor Competence Network (IMCNetwork) a network of academics and researchers aiming to promote international collaborative research and knowledge translation in the expansive field of MC. The knowledge and deliverables generated by addressing and answering the aforementioned research questions on MC presented in this review have the potential to shape the ways in which researchers and practitioners promote MC and physical activity in children and adolescents across the world., Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology FCT/UIDB/00617/2020 CEECIND/01089/2017 CEECIND/01069/2017, Grant Agency of the Czech Republic 19-03276S, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness RTI2018-095284-J-100, Spanish Ministry of of Science and Innovation RYC2019-027287-I, National Commission for Scientific Research and Technology of Chile (CONICYT-FONDECYT) 11170525, University of Granada Plan Propio de Investigacion, European Commission, Junta de Andalucia SOMM17/6107/UGR, Miguel Servet Fellow (Instituto de Salud Carlos III-FSE) CP18/0150

Children’s self-perception of motor skills and physical fitness is said to be an important mediator between skills and physical fitness on the one hand and physical activity on the other hand. An age-appropriate self-perception scale is needed to understand the development and the differentiation of the physical self-concept of children and its components. Therefore, the objectives of this study were (1) to develop a pictorial scale of physical fitness for pre-school children (3–6 years old), and (2) to describe the face validity and feasibility of the scale. The study sample included 27 kindergarten children. In order to determine the psychometric properties, validity was assessed by administrating the Pictorial Scale for Physical Self-Concept in Kindergarten Children (P-PSC-C) compared with children’s fundamental movement skill competency (Test of Gross Motor Development [TGMD]-3; six locomotor and seven object-control skills), height, weight, and demographics. The face validity was favorable. Expectable negatively skewed response distributions were found in all items. Medium correlations with related constructs and with sport enjoyment were found. The results indicate that the new scale is usable for kindergarten children. Future validation studies are needed so that the new scale can contribute to the research about physical self-concept development in kindergarten children.

Though it is well-established that self-esteem develops from childhood well into old age, little is known about the processes that influence this change, especially among young populations. This international, cross-sequential study examined the development of self-esteem in 1599 second-graders (Age MT1 = 7.99, SDT1 = 0.52 years; 52% male) in the Netherlands and Germany over three years. Multilevel models revealed that mean-level trends in self-esteem were stable across time among all demographic groups, but that males and students in the Netherlands consistently had higher self-esteem than females and students in Germany. Further analyses examining the role of social support in self-esteem development demonstrated that individuals with better peer and family social support tended to have higher levels of self-esteem and that within-person changes in social support were directly related to changes in self-esteem level, providing support for sociometer theory. These findings suggest that demographic factors as well as social support are important predictors of self-esteem as early as middle childhood.

Objective Motor impairments after stroke can lead to limitations in functional performance and mental health. Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses have mainly assessed randomized clinical trials of mental practice interventions (MPI) among stroke patients, focusing on physical outcomes. However, mentally rehearsing a motor movement might increase a patient’s self-confidence within the recovery process and thus also lead to positive effects on psychological outcomes. Therefore, we aim to investigate the effectiveness of MPI on psychological health outcomes. Methods We performed a systematic review of RCTs according to PRISMA guidelines. 16.125 records were identified through PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Cochrane resulting in 8.573 documents after duplicates were removed. After excluding 8.507 documents during title and abstract screening, 64 could be full-text screened. All clinical and randomized controlled trials designed to investigate the effects of mental practice on psychological health in adult patients after stroke were considered eligible. Results Six studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the qualitative analysis. The six included studies partly showed positive effects of MPI on psychological health such as quality of life, stroke-specific quality of life, fall-related self-efficacy, positive and negative affect but not on anxiety and depression. Overall, the methodological power is lacking. The included studies differ substantially regarding study design, sample size, intervention protocol and psychological health operationalization. Conclusions The results show inconsistent effects of MPI on psychological health. More systematic research is needed to investigate the effects of MPI on psychological health and give several recommendations for future research.

Self-tracking via fitness apps is popular and has been described as a means to enhance body awareness and well-being. However, the effects of fitness-app use and specific app functions on well-being and body awareness have yet to be targeted in controlled experimental studies. In two randomized groups, a fitness tracker was used for 6 weeks, and in one group a daily step target was implemented. In a third control group, participants documented their physical activity. A daily diary method was used to measure well-being and body trusting. In Bayesian multilevel analyses, no time, group, or interaction effects were found. These results were robust when controlling for diverse variables. It can be concluded that exercise-related self-tracking and specific step goals do not substantially influence psychological well-being and body trusting. Considering the large variability in effects, potential effects can be assumed under conditions that are to be identified in further studies.

Kontinuierliches Monitoring physischer Fitness im Kindesalter ist aus gesellschaftlicher sowie individueller Perspektive bedeutsam, um eine gesunde kindliche Entwicklung zu unterstutzen. Entsprechend wird von der Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK) und dem Deutschen Olympischen Sportbund (DOSB) in gemeinsamen Handlungsempfehlungen (2017, S. 9) der Einsatz motorischer Tests im Schulsport empfohlen, um aus verschiedenen Perspektiven bedarfsorientiert Interventionsmasnahmen ableiten zu konnen. Motorische Testergebnisse werden in Leistungsklassen kategorisiert, um zu vermeiden, dass deskriptive, aber inhaltlich nicht bedeutsame Verbesserungen oder Verschlechterungen zwischen und innerhalb von Personen uberinterpretiert werden. Veranderungen der durchschnittlichen Leistungsfahigkeit uber mehrere Jahre hinweg konnen die Validitat dieser Referenzkategorien beeinflussen. Ziele dieser Studie sind daher, (1) mittelfristige zeitliche Leistungsveranderungen der physischen Fitness im mittleren Kindesalter aufzuzeigen, (2) Auswirkungen von Leistungsveranderungen auf Referenzwerte und die Validitat des Konstrukts physische Fitness zu prufen und (3) valide Referenzwerte fur Acht- und Neunjahrige zur Verfugung zu stellen. Von 2011 bis 2016 nahmen in einem quasilangsschnittlichen Design uber 20.000 DrittklasslerInnen im Projekt „Berlin hat Talent“ am Deutschen Motorik-Test 6–18 teil. Die zeitliche Stabilitat sportmotorischer Leistungen wird mittels Regressionsmodellen und Kreuztabellen gepruft sowie Auswirkungen auf die Konstruktvaliditat der bestehenden Berliner Referenzwerte mittels ordinaler Rasch-Modelle analysiert. Sieben der acht Testaufgaben zeigen zeitlich positive sowie negative Veranderungen. Die Konstruktvaliditat des Deutschen Motorik-Tests kann fur DrittklasslerInnen nach Ausschluss des Items „Balancieren ruckwarts“ bestatigt werden (p > 0,90). Die aufgabenspezifischen Veranderungen der motorischen Leistungsfahigkeit von Kindern in einem relativ kurzen Zeitraum unterstutzen zum einen die Forderung eines flachendeckenden und kontinuierlichen Monitorings, um fruhzeitig Interventionsmasnahmen einleiten zu konnen, und bedingen zum anderen eine kontinuierliche Prufung bzw. Testnormierung von Referenzwerten im DMT mit ausreichend grosen und reprasentativen Stichproben.