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The total mineral content was studied in medicinal plants from roadside and railside biotopes of the Voronezh region. Pharmacopoeial plant raw materials of 10 species were evaluated: roots of Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg and Arctium lappa L.; herb of Polygonum aviculare L., Artemisia absinthium L., Leonurus quinquelobatus Gilib., and Achillea millefolium L.; leaves of Urtica dioica L. and Plantago major L.; and flowers of Tanacetum vulgare L. and Tilia cordata Mill. Plant raw materials were collected near roads and railways of various types in the periods specified in regulatory documents. The total ash content in plant material was used to determine the minimum allowable distances from various roads and railways for collecting plant material. The minimum allowable distance from heavy-traffic motorways was recommended to be 210 m in the forest zone, 240 m in the forest-steppe zone, and 380 m in the steppe zone. A distance of at least 80 m was recommended for secondary low-speed roads and railways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two lime tree species: European – small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) and Far Eastern – amur lime (Tilia amurensis Rupr.) grow in the arboretum of V. N. Sukachev Institute of Forest, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences experimental station «Pogorelskiy Bor». Small-leaved lime tree has 9–16 m in height and 10–36.5 cm in diameter, amur lime tree has 11.5–14.5 m and 7.5–21.5 cm, accordingly. Plants of both species are characterized by high winter hardiness, they are not damaged with spring frosts and rarely attacked by pests. The lime trees begin blooming in the middle of July when the sum of effective temperatures reaches about 800 degrees/day (42.2–43.0 % of the total tef > 5 for the year). They continue blooming during 10–17 days. A fruits – lime-capsules ripen in September. The small-leaved lime tree capsules were 5.7 mm in length, 4.4 mm in width and 23.6 g in weight per 1000 pieces, its seeds were 4.0 mm, 3.0 mm and 14.5 g, accordingly. Sizes of amur lime tree capsules and seeds were similar – 5.3 mm, 3.9 mm and 23.8 g for the first ones and 3.9 mm 2.6 mm and 16.1 for the second ones. The part of empty seeds in small-leaved lime tree was 70 % but the part of such seeds in amur lime tree was 30 %. At the same time, the good quality of seed samples of both species did not exceed 30 %. On the territory of the arboretum there is natural regeneration of lime tree, including self-seeding. It is the most abundant at a distance of 50–100 m from the mother plants, where its density is 25–41 pieces per square meter.

Due to an increasing risk of further damage to forests, forest managers are considering introducing an alternative direction for their future development - via the cultivation of mixed forests. At middle altitudes in the Czech Republic, an oak-beech-linden stand is the most natural type, and we tried to answer three main questions: (i) How the various thinning types affect dendrometric parameters and quality of the stand; (ii) How long thinning works on this stand until it loses its effect; (iii) How the stand develops spontaneously after abandonment. This experiment was conducted at the Training Forest Enterprise in the Czech Republic in Drahanská vrchovina (highlands in central Moravia). In 1988, four plots were established in a 49-year-old stand where, in three of the plots, different types of thinning (crown, low and heavy crown) were performed, leaving one (reference plot) to develop naturally. The height, the height of the crown base and diameter at breast height (DBH) were measured, and the shape and quality of the trunk and crown were estimated on each tree. Measurements were carried out in 1989, 1994, 1999, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020. In the first 10 years, the DBH and height of the crown base did not show any differences, and the linden at the heavy crown plot outgrew the linden trees at the other plots in height. After these 10 years, the thickest linden, the tallest beech and linden, and the greatest height of the crown base of beech and linden were all found at the heavy crown plot. The shape and quality of the trunks and crowns of beech, oak and linden were similar in all plots (including the reference plot) during the entire experiment. After thinning, the plots were left to grow spontaneously. The heavy crown thinning removed a greater number of thicker trees at the middle level, thus supporting the trees growing in the lower part of the middle level and in the below level (i.e. the beech and linden). These trees then grew more quickly compared to the others, but their quality decreased, as did that of the others. Therefore, a forest left to grow and develop spontaneously is practically unusable for commercial purposes.

In the summer of 2023, small‐leaved lime trees (Tilia cordata) in the capital city of Warsaw were found to be dying along transport routes. The stem fragments collected for analysis showed the presence of necrosis near larval galleries caused by Agrilus viridis (L.). After a detailed microbiological analysis of both the tissues taken directly from the necroses and from the larval galleries, the presence of five different bacteria was confirmed, including Gibsiella quercinecans, which is responsible for the phenomenon of oak stand dieback known as Acute Oak Dieback. The pathogenicity tests carried out confirmed that this bacterium is also capable of causing necrosis on lime trees. The fact that this bacterium was found in the larval galleries of the polyphagous A. viridis could also indicate that it was vectored into the lime tree from other species, for example, oaks. The results obtained are the first report on the occurrence of G. quercinecans on lime trees in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The small-leaved linden (Tilia cordata Mill.), is the most common linden species in Europe and Romania. Trees of this species are more affected by diseases and pests in cities than in stands. One of the diseases that affect linden leaves is that caused by Paraconiothyrium tiliae (Rudolphi) Verkley & Gruyter, which is manifested by the appearance of large, brown spots with a fringed edge. The objective of the work is to report the presence of this species in the north of our country and to investigate if there was any connection between the occurrence of the disease and the evolution of meteorological conditions during the last three growing seasons. The observed specific symptoms (initially small, black spots with a very obvious fibrillar structure, then larger spots, with a finely fringed edge and surrounded by a yellow zone, yellowing, deformation and premature fall of the leaves), as well as the period of their appearance, respectively at the beginning of autumn, completely correspond to those described and illustrated in the specialized literature, confirming the fact that the pathogenic agent is the fungus P. tiliae. The species is reported for the second time in Romania, 72 years after the first report. The new occurences are from Câmpulung Moldovenesc, Vatra Moldoviței and Sucevița, Suceava county. In all three cases, the fungus was found on leaves of linden trees located near water courses. The characteristic symptoms of the disease caused by this fungus were noticed in 2021 and 2023, two years with cooler and rainier weather than would have been normal at the end of spring and/or beginning of summer. The most intense attack was recorded at Câmpulung Moldovenesc, on the branches at the base of the crowns of some young trees grown among spruce trees that are planted along the embankment on the right bank of the Moldova River. Given its rarity and low impact on infected trees, the species is not important from a phytosanitary point of view, but rather as an element of biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The photosynthetic characteristics of linden leaves (Tilia cordata L.) and birches (Betula verrukosa L.) growing near the city highways of Moscow (MKAD, Moscow Ring Road) by simultaneously recording the induction curves of chlorophyll fluorescence and the redox state of the PSI pigment–P700. In trees near highways, deterioration of electron transport at the level of plastoquinones (δRo) and decrease of P700+ reduction was revealed, despite the rather high rates of photosynthetic efficiency (FV/FM). In birch leaves growing along the Moscow Ring Road, a decrease in the outflow of electrons from PSI and a decrease in the intensity of delayed fluorescence at 30 ms and 1 s, associated with a decrease in the electrical and chemical components of the electrochemical proton gradient on photosynthetic membranes, were revealed. In plants near highways, an increase in the degree of photoinhibition and a slowdown in the reactions of restoring photosynthetic activity in the dark after the cessation of photooxidative stress were noted, which confirms the probable effect of unfavorable urban conditions on the biosynthesis of proteins in PSII reaction centers. The following fluorescence parameters are proposed as indicators of the state of trees in an urban environment: total performance index (PItotal) and the quantum yield of reduction of electron acceptors on the acceptor side of PSI (φRo). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work represents potential bio-sorbents: Tilia cordata (little leaf linden) and Foeniculum vulgare (fennel). The copper removal was operated in batch procedure. Adsorbent mass, copper ion concentration, pH, time, and temperature considerations were inspected. The highly beneficial provisions for copper adsorption are 10 mg /L as preliminary concentration, 0.2 g as Tilia cordata and Foeniculum vulgare mass and pH 5.5 and 5.23 for Tilia cordata and Foeniculum vulgare. Adsorption statistics follow the Langmuir isotherm with qmax of 29.35 mg/g for Tilia cordata and 32.98 mg/g for Foeniculum vulgare. The removal procedure kinetics was provided perfectly via second-order equations. It was revealed that the copper ion adsorption procedure on mutual bio-sorbents is a spontaneous procedure, and is endothermal for Tilia cordata and Foeniculum vulgare. Characterization of Tilia cordata (little leaf linden) and Foeniculum (vulgare fennel) were inspected with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), Vis-IR Spectroscopy, GC-mass and milling cutter. A distinctive development in the adsorbent surface was exhibited through scanning electron microscope. The removal efficiency reached to 93.34 & 95.4 for Tilia (Tilia cordata) and Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) respectively at 0.5 M bio-sorbent which indicated that Tilia (Tilia cordata) and Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) has good renderability and stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our study investigated the possibility of using the red mason bee Osmia bicornis as a pollinator of forest seed orchards of frequently grown European trees: insect - pollinated Tilia cordata and Prunus avium. Moreover, we checked whether the presence of O. bicornis has an impact on the pollination results of Quercus petraea, which is wind - pollinated. Data were collected from 8 forest seed orchards in western Poland between 2018 and 2020. We assessed whether the presence of O. bicornis populations affects the number and mass of seeds and seed quality. Supplementing forest orchards with O. bicornis affected seed yield. The generalized linear mixed models indicated that the number of seeds and the proportion of viable seeds, but not seed mass, were higher in the Tilia cordata trees, when additionally pollinated with O. bicornis added as a pollinator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of nighttime lighting on the anatomical and morphological structure and the content of photosynthetic pigments in the leaves of Tilia cordata, Aesculus hippocastanum, and Platanus acerifolia was estimated on the example of garden-park and street plantings of Kyiv. At the experimental sites, the level of illumination and the soil surface temperature during the day and night periods were examined. The anatomical and morphological structure of the leaves was studied using transmission electron microscopy. The content of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids) in tree leaves was determined spectrophotometrically. The analysis of variance revealed that nighttime lighting significantly affected the anatomical structure and the content of photosynthetic pigments in the leaves of T. cordata and P. acerifolia. In A. hippocastanum, only parameters of stomata and palisade parenchyma showed a significant reaction to this stress factor.

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Urbanization impacts plant-herbivore interactions, which are crucial for ecosystem functions such as carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling. While some studies have reported reductions in insect herbivory in urban areas (relative to rural or natural forests), this trend is not consistent and the underlying causes for such variation remain unclear. We conducted a continental-scale study on insect herbivory along urbanization gradients for three European tree species: Quercus robur, Tilia cordata, and Fraxinus excelsior, and further investigated their biotic and abiotic correlates to get at mechanisms. To this end, we quantified insect leaf herbivory and foliar secondary metabolites (phenolics, terpenoids, alkaloids) for 176 trees across eight European cities. Additionally, we collected data on microclimate (air temperature) and soil characteristics (pH, carbon, nutrients) to test for abiotic correlates of urbanization effects directly or indirectly (through changes in plant secondary chemistry) linked to herbivory. Our results showed that urbanization was negatively associated with herbivory for Q. robur and F. excelsior , but not for T. cordata. In addition, urbanization was positively associated with secondary metabolite concentrations, but only for Q. robur. Urbanization was positively associated with air temperature for Q. robur and F. excelsior , and negatively with soil nutrients (magnesium) in the case of F. excelsior , but these abiotic variables were not associated with herbivory. Contrary to expectations, we found no evidence for indirect effects of abiotic factors via plant defences on herbivory for either Q. robur or F. excelsior. Additional biotic or abiotic drivers must therefore be accounted for to explain observed urbanization gradients in herbivory and their interspecific variation. In more urbanized areas, insect leaf herbivory was lower for Quercus robur and Fraxinus excelsior but not for Tilia cordata , while leaf secondary metabolites were higher for Q. robur but not for F. excelsior and T. cordata. [Display omitted] • The association between the urbanization degree and herbivory varied among the tree species. • Urbanization is positively associated with leaf secondary metabolite concentrations in Q. robur. • Abiotic proxies of urbanization showed no direct or indirect association with herbivory in either species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relevance and purpose. Cenopopulations of deciduous tree species at the northern border of the range are of particular scientific interest as objects of biological diversity. The relevance of the work is associated with the need to organize monitoring of these rare objects in the forests of the Petrozavodsk Urban Okrug by cause of increasing anthropogenic pressure. Assessment of the state of valuable nature conservation objects has not only scientific, but also economic interest in the field of ecosystem services, taking into account those functions of natural ecosystems that ensure the quality of people’s living standards.Material and methods. During 2017–2018 a detailed study of the cenopopulations of Tilia cordata and Ulmus glabra was carried out on two model plots within the boundaries of the Petrozavodsk urban district. The area, abundance, ontogenetic structure of cenopopulations was determined using the standard technique of cenopopulation studies, taking into account the characteristics of specific species. Results and conclusions. The studied cenopopulations are isolated and small (up to 23 hectares). They were forming during the secondary succession anthropogenic felling and fires more than 100 years old. According to the ontogenetic spectrum, cenopopulations are normal mature, have an ontogenetic spectrum with a maximum on immature individuals, thus, cenopopulations are characterized by a normal turnover of generations. Generative reproduction and large generative trees high 16–24 m up to 120 years old are rare for the northern regions.

Water contamination is one of the most worrisome problems in the world. Industrial dyes are discharged without previous treatment, promoting water pollution and affecting the environment. In this paper, semiconductor SnO2 nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized using Tilia cordata extract, as a reducing agent, at different concentrations, 1%, 2%, and 4% (weight/volume; w/v). These NPs were used as photocatalysts characterize an alternative for degrading wastewater compounds. Nanoparticle symmetry is an important factor for understanding the properties that provide tools for further treatments. Additionally, the structural, morphological, and optical properties of the green-synthesized SnO2 NPs were studied. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) showed the characteristic absorption band of Sn–O centered at 609 cm−1. Meanwhile, X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed a tetragonal rutile-type crystalline phase without impurities whose crystallite size increased from 15.96 nm and 16.38 nm to 21.51 nm for SnO2-1%, SnO2-2%, and SnO2-4%, respectively, as extract concentration was increased. NPs with a quasi-spherical morphology with agglomerations were observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). On the other hand, the bandgap remained at ~3.6 eV throughout all samples, even at variable extract concentrations. The NPs yielded great photocatalytic activity capable of degrading methylene blue (MB) dye under ultraviolet radiation and solar radiation, achieving degradation percentages of 90% and 83% of MB under UV and solar radiation at 90 and 180 min, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims: Mixed forest plantations are increasingly recognised for their role in mitigating the impacts of climate change and enhancing ecosystem resilience. Yet, there remains a significant gap in understanding the early-stage dynamics of species trait diversity and interspecies interactions, particularly in pure deciduous mixtures. This study aims to explore the timing and mechanisms by which trait diversity of deciduous species and competitive interactions influence yield, carbon allocation, and space occupation in mixed forests, both above- and belowground., Methods: A forest inventory was conducted in planted monocultures, 2-species, and 4-species mixtures of European Acer, Tilia, Carpinus, and Quercus, representing a spectrum from acquisitive to conservative tree species. Competition effects were assessed with linear mixed-effects models at the level of biomass and space acquisition, including leaf, canopy, stem, and fine root traits., Key Results: Early aboveground growth effects were observed six years post-planting, with significant biomass accumulation after eight years, strongly influenced by species composition. Mixtures, especially with acquisitive species, exhibited aboveground overyielding, 1.5- to 1.9-times higher than monocultures. Fine roots showed substantial overyielding in high diversity stands. Biomass allocation was species-specific and varied markedly by tree size, the level of diversity, and between acquisitive Acer and the more conservative species. No root segregation was found., Conclusions: Our findings underscore the critical role of species trait diversity in enhancing productivity in mixed deciduous forest plantations. Allometric changes highlight the need to differentiate between (active) acclimations and (passive) tree size-related changes, but illustrate major consequences of competitive interactions for the functional relation between leaves, stem, and roots. This study points towards the significant contributions of both above- and belowground components to overall productivity of planted mixed-species forests., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Annals of Botany Company.)

Urbanization and climate change are two inevitable megatrends of this century. Knowledge about the growth responses of urban trees to climate is of utmost importance towards future management of green infrastructure with the aim of a sustainable provision of the environmental ecosystem services. Using tree-ring records, this study analyzed growth response to climate by stem diameter at breast height (DBH) of 1178 trees in seven large cities worldwide, including Aesculus hippocastanum L. in Munich; Platanus × hispanica Münchh. in Paris; Quercus nigra L. in Houston; Quercus robur L. in Cape Town; Robinia pseudoacacia L. in Santiago de Chile, Munich, and Würzburg; and Tilia cordata Mill. in Berlin, Munich, and Würzburg. Climate was characterized following the de Martonne aridity index (DMI). Overall, trees showed an 8.3% lower DBH under arid than humid climate at the age of 100. Drought-tolerant tree species were overall not affected by climate. However, R. pseudoacacia showed a lower diameter when growing in semi-dry than humid climate. In contrast, drought-sensitive tree species were negatively affected by arid climate. Moreover, the effect of drought years on annual diameter increment was assessed. P. × hispanica and R. pseudoacacia appeared as the most drought-resistant species. The highest sensitivity to drought was detected in T. cordata and Q. robur. A. hippocastanum and Q. nigra showed a lower diameter growth during drought events, followed by a fast recovery. This study's findings may contribute to a better understanding of urban tree growth reactions to climate, aiming for sustainable planning and management of urban trees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trees are key components of historic gardens and are valuable sources of genetic diversity that need preservation to enrich native populations' genetic basis in order to enhance long-term viability, and facilitate the species' adaptation to changing climatic and environmental conditions. The primary objective of our study was to assess the genetic diversity, structure and relationships of the Tilia cordata Mill. allée at Széchenyi Castle in Nagycenk (UNESCO heritage site), Hungary, to infer the late-Baroque garden's rich genetic heritage and conservation importance. The small leaved lime individuals at Nagycenk, with an age of 200 years, maintained high genetic diversity with non-significant inbreeding and high allelic richness and number of private alleles. Genetic diversity was similar to Central European natural populations and slightly higher compared to other plant collections, e.g. Eszterházy Castle garden at Fertőd. The surveyed trees exhibited two age groups unrelated with shallow genetic differentiation indicating the potential seed source origin from the local geographic area. Bayesian clustering of individuals showed significant differences from the individuals growing at Fertőd-Esterházy gardens (approx. in a 15 km distance) and other T. cordata cultivars. We concluded that the T. cordata collection of Nagycenk is a unique genetic heritage of the former natural vegetation due to its genetic variability and divergence, which would be a valuable source of future breeding programs and conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change will cause significant changes in climate parameters, especially temperature increases and changes in precipitation regimes worldwide. Since the life of living things is directly related to climate parameters, this process will inevitably affect all living things. The plants will be the most affected living things from this process because they do not have an effective movement and migration mechanism. Therefore, global climate change will cause significant species and population losses in plants. To minimize the potential loss of species and populations, it is necessary to predetermine the potential changes in species' distribution areas and take necessary actions. Therefore, this study was aimed to determine the distribution areas of three Tilia species (Tilia tomentosa, Tilia cordata, and Tilia platyphyllos), which have economic, ecologic, and social value and show the local distribution in Turkey and to determine how they will be affected by global climate change. Within this scope, nineteen bioclimatic variables, Emberger climate classification, aspect, and topographic altitude variable were used in the modeling process. By modeling the scenarios SSP 245 and SSP 585, the projections were made for 2040, 2060, 2080, and 2100 regarding the areas suitable for the growth of these species and how these areas will change compared to their current situation. The results suggest that the distribution areas of all three Tilia species will change due to climate change, and the area of loss will be 43.5 km2 (4%) for T. tomentosa, 9953.6 km2 (15%) for T. platyphyllos, and 448.0 km2 (19%) for T. cordata. Moreover, a more important point here is that increases and decreases will be observed in their distribution areas, and these changes will occur in a short process and at significant levels. In this case, the migration mechanism that these species will require must be provided by humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water contamination is one of the most worrisome problems in the world. Industrial dyes are discharged without previous treatment, promoting water pollution and affecting the environment. In this paper, semiconductor SnO2 nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized using Tilia cordata extract, as a reducing agent, at different concentrations, 1%, 2%, and 4% (weight/volume; w/v). These NPs were used as photocatalysts characterize an alternative for degrading wastewater compounds. Nanoparticle symmetry is an important factor for understanding the properties that provide tools for further treatments. Additionally, the structural, morphological, and optical properties of the green-synthesized SnO2 NPs were studied. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) showed the characteristic absorption band of Sn–O centered at 609 cm−1. Meanwhile, X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed a tetragonal rutile-type crystalline phase without impurities whose crystallite size increased from 15.96 nm and 16.38 nm to 21.51 nm for SnO2-1%, SnO2-2%, and SnO2-4%, respectively, as extract concentration was increased. NPs with a quasi-spherical morphology with agglomerations were observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). On the other hand, the bandgap remained at ~3.6 eV throughout all samples, even at variable extract concentrations. The NPs yielded great photocatalytic activity capable of degrading methylene blue (MB) dye under ultraviolet radiation and solar radiation, achieving degradation percentages of 90% and 83% of MB under UV and solar radiation at 90 and 180 min, respectively.

Trees that grow in urban areas are confronted with a wide variety of stresses that undermine their long-term survival. These include mechanical damage to the crown, root reduction and stem injury, all of which remove significant parts of plant tissues. The single or combined effects of these stresses generate a complex array of growth and ecophysiological responses that are hard to predict. Here we evaluated the effects of different individual and combined damage on the dynamics of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC, low weight sugars plus starch) concentration and new tissue growth (diameter increment) in young trees. We hypothesized that (i) tissue damage will induce larger reductions in diameter growth than in NSC concentrations and (ii) combinations of stress treatments that minimally alter the "functional equilibrium" (e.g., similar reductions of leaf and root area) would have the least impact on NSC concentrations (although not on growth) helping to maintain tree health and integrity. To test these hypotheses, we set up a manipulative field experiment with 10-year-old trees of common urban species (Celtis occidentalis, Fraxinus pennsylvanica , and Tilia cordata). These trees were treated with a complete array of mechanical damage combinations at different levels of intensity (i.e., three levels of defoliation and root reduction, and two levels of stem damage). We found that tree growth declined in relation to the total amount of stress inflicted on the trees, i.e., when the combined highest level of stress was applied, but NSC concentrations were either not affected or, in some cases, increased with an increasing level of stress. We did not find a consistent response in concentration of reserves in relation to the combined stress treatments. Therefore, trees appear to reach a new "functional equilibrium" that allows them to adjust their levels of carbohydrate reserves, especially in stems and roots, to meet their metabolic demand under stressful situations. Our results provide a unique insight into the carbon economy of trees facing multiple urban stress conditions in order to better predict long-term tree performance and vitality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phyllosphere is a challenging microbial habitat in which microorganisms can flourish on organic carbon released by plant leaves but are also exposed to harsh environmental conditions. Here, we assessed the relative importance of canopy position—top, mid, and bottom at a height between 31 and 20 m—and tree species identity for shaping the phyllosphere microbiome in a floodplain hardwood forest. Leaf material was sampled from three tree species—maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.), oak (Quercus robur L.), and linden (Tilia cordata MILL.)—at the Leipzig canopy crane facility (Germany). Estimated bacterial species richness (Chao1) and bacterial abundances approximated by quantitative PCR of 16S rRNA genes exhibited clear vertical trends with a strong increase from the top to the mid and bottom position of the canopy. Thirty operational taxonomic units (OTUs) formed the core microbiome, which accounted for 77% of all sequence reads. These core OTUs showed contrasting trends in their vertical distribution within the canopy, pointing to different ecological preferences and tolerance to presumably more extreme conditions at the top position of the canopy. Co-occurrence analysis revealed distinct tree species-specific OTU networks, and 55–57% of the OTUs were unique to each tree species. Overall, the phyllosphere microbiome harbored surprisingly high fractions of Actinobacteria of up to 66%. Our results clearly demonstrate strong effects of the position in the canopy on phyllosphere bacterial communities in a floodplain hardwood forest and—in contrast to other temperate or tropical forests—a strong predominance of Actinobacteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The population density of Eucallipterus tiliae (L.) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) required for initiating oviposition in Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) was established in Tilia cordata Mill. (Dicotyledoneae: Tiliaceae) stands sampled weekly throughout the vegetative seasons of 2017–2019. The number of aphids per leaf area and oviposition in H. axyridis females were determined at each sampling session. Seasonal changes in aphid abundance and the presence of ovipositing females in natural populations varied across years but in all years H. axyridis started oviposition as soon as the aphid density increased above 10.2 aphids per ten sweeps, which equals 1.04 aphids per 100 cm2 leaf area. These values exceed the threshold aphid density for starting oviposition in Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), which is 0.40 aphids per 100 cm2 leaf area. This difference is in line with H. axyridis preference for trees, host plants with complex architecture and hard to search, and preference of C. septempunctata for spatially simple herbs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key Message: Mosaicism has been confirmed in several studied old trees from both gymnosperms and angiosperms, in a pattern not always following the actual branching of the tree. Eight individuals from two gymnosperm and three angiosperm species of trees were studied for age-related mosaicism. We compare the level of intra-organismal genetic variability found within an individual old and an individual young tree of the same species to prove its relation to age. In five cases, we found statistically significant differences in intra-organismal genetic variability between young and old trees. In three cases of mosaicism, the constructed dendrogram corresponded with the actual branching of the tree, but it differed in the remaining two. We offer an explanation of the cases when the dendrogram does not correspond with the branching structure of the tree through the patterns of sectorial and mericlinal chimerism. In the studied gymnosperms, we found that the growth rate possibly influenced the level of intra-organismal variability, while in angiosperms the dependence was rather on age. The differences between angiosperm and gymnosperm molecular evolution and meristem stratification may play a role in this, but further research is needed in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Quaternary history of European nemoral forests in the east of their distribution may differ significantly from the typical dynamics of populations and ranges of most deciduous species in Western and Central Europe, characterized by survival in the Mediterranean refugia in glacial phases and recolonization in the interglacials. This study focuses on the phylogeography of the small-leaved lime Tilia cordata Mill. s. s. (Malvaceae) and related taxa in Eastern Europe, the Urals, Siberia, and the Crimea. The variability of five chloroplast DNA fragments (CDt, HKt, DT, K1K2, and psbJ–petA) was studied in 29 populations using restriction analysis and sequencing. The deep divergence of the six identified haplotypes and poorly supported topology of the phylogenetic tree presumably correspond to the long existence of T. cordata in several areas of the western Palaearctic isolated from each other. The two haplotypes dominate on the Russian Plain, in the Urals, and in Siberia. Their comparison with the data of other authors shows their absence in Western and Central Europe. Several haplotypes found in western Russia, in Belarus, and in Western Ukraine correspond to haplotypes previously identified in Central Europe and the Carpathians. We assume that such a distribution of chloroplast DNA variability is due to the preservation of lime in the refugia in the east of the range during one or several of the last glacial intervals and recolonization in the Late Glacial on the Russian Plain. Comparison of the results of the study of the variability of chloroplast DNA in T. cordata s. l. and the results of the study of nuclear microsatellites suggest that the species that lived in the Urals and the Russian Plain in the Pleistocene is a Siberian lime (T. sibirica), later displaced by the European small-leaved lime and now occurring only in Southern Siberia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A plantation of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) containing two types of planting stock - large-sized transplants (LST) and standard-sized transplants (SST) - was planted on a site with strong weed competition. The aim was to compare the growth, survival and health of those types of planting stock under a weeded and non-weeded regime in a dry and warm climate. Recorded variables were: overall mortality, stem height, root-collar diameter and chlorophyll content. Increments in height and root collar diameter were calculated. Precipitation, soil and air temperatures were continuously monitored by an automatic climate station. Soil analysis revealed equal conditions for the treatments. Simple analysis of costs was calculated. The results showed that LST exhibited greater height increment than SST in the first 5 years after afforestation under strong weed competition. Non-weeded (under the regime of no weeding) SST also showed increased mortality. Weeding regime positively influenced the height increment of SST but did not influence the height increment of LST. Chlorophyll content was significantly higher in the leaves of LST than in SST in the first growing period. Economic analysis showed that the number of trees was the most important variable, while weeding was less important. LST can be recommended for reforestation of weed-infested sites, even if they have relatively low annual precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Central German Uplands, Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies have been particularly affected by climate change. With the establishment of beech forests about 3000 years ago and pure spruce stands 500 years ago, they might be regarded as ‘neophytes’ in the Hessian forests. Palaeoecological investigations at wetland sites in the low mountain ranges and intramontane basins point to an asynchronous vegetation evolution in a comparatively small but heterogenous region. On the other hand, palynological data prove that sustainably managed woodlands with high proportions of Tilia have been persisting for several millennia, before the spread of beech took place as a result of a cooler and wetter climate and changes in land management. In view of increasingly warmer and drier conditions, Tilia cordata appears especially qualified to be an important silvicultural constituent of the future, not only due to its tolerance towards drought, but also its resistance to browsing, and the ability to reproduce vegetatively. Forest managers should be encouraged to actively promote the return to more stress-tolerant lime-dominated woodlands, similar to those that existed in the Subboreal chronozone.

This work deals with the innovated complex process of tree risk assessment, from precise geometrical tree shape acquisition to building and analyzing a finite element model under specified load. The acquisition of the 3D geometry of the tree was performed by means of terrestrial laser scanning. Obtained point cloud was optimized and additionally converted to a 3D CAD model, representing the bearing skeleton compound of trunk and main branches. For structural analysis purposes, a finite element model (FEM) was built in the form of beam structure fixed to the ground. Particular beams were defined by geometry, material properties of wood, and cross sections. An acoustic tomography was applied for determination of the precise cross section on investigated locations of an analysis model. Finite element analysis performed on the computational model shows the bearing capacity and deformations of the whole tree structure caused by combinations of load cases like self-weight and static equivalent of wind load. The results of the structural analysis called attention to potentially dangerous places within the tree structure with extreme node displacements or tensile stresses on beams. Thus, we observed a maximal horizontal displacement of 280.4 mm in node N34 and dangerous tensile stress in node N26, where it reaches +23.6 MPa. After filtering some beams with an abnormal cross section geometry, the finite element analysis of the whole tree structure showed the highest tensile stress of +8.8 MPa and highest compressive stress of −8.9 MPa. The suggested method can be applied generally for the prediction of potentially risky tree suspected of breakage and especially for monumental trees, where the presented method can be mostly applicable.

This study performed a pilot evaluation of the wood quality—defined by a single parameter: dynamic modulus of elasticity (MOEdyn, N mm−2)—of small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.) trees in urban areas. A search of the literature revealed few studies which examined the specifics of tree wood development in urban areas. Little is known about the potential of wood from urban trees wood of their suitability for the timber industry. In this study, an acoustic velocity measuring system was used for wood quality assessment of small-leaved lime trees. The MOEdyn parameter was evaluated for small-leaved lime trees growing in two urban locations (along the streets, and in an urban park), with an additional sample of forest sites taken as the control. MOEdyn was also assessed for small-leaved lime trees visually assigned to different health classes. The obtained mean values of MOEdyn of 90–120-year old small-leaved lime trees in urban areas ranged between 2492.2 and 2715.8 N mm−2. For younger trees, the values of MOEdyn were lower in the urban areas than in the forest site. Otherwise, the results of the study showed that the small-leaved lime wood samples were of relatively good quality, even if the tree was classified as moderately damaged (which could cause a potential risk to the community). Two alternatives for urban tree management can be envisaged: (1) old trees could be left to grow to maintain the sustainability of an urban area until their natural death, or (2) the wood from selected moderately damaged trees could be used to create wood products, ensuring long-term carbon retention.

The insect‐pollinated forest tree Tilia cordata Mill. grows today in small fragmented populations in Denmark and other western European countries but was, in prehistoric times, a dominating species and is considered an indicator species for ancient forest. The species is known to propagate both sexually and vegetatively, forming clonal groups. Few studies have been made on the species' population genetics and on how clonality affects the population structure. The aim of this study is to evaluate the Danish gene pool by estimating genetic diversity and differentiation, as well as through exhaustive sampling describe clonal structures in some of the populations. Genetic analysis was carried out using nine nuclear microsatellite markers in nine populations, of which four were exhaustively or partly exhaustively sampled. The markers showed a high degree of genetic diversity but low differentiation between populations, with no geographic‐related structure. Clonal structures were found in eight out of the nine populations. In the exhaustively sampled populations, recruitment strategies included both sexual and clonal reproduction with indications that clonality may be enhanced by management and other disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Urban tree growth depends on site conditions (climate, sealing) and species features. • Yearly growth of R. pseudoacacia and T. cordata significantly differed. • This was driven by site climate, species' wood anatomy and water use. • The results can help in gaining knowledge for future tree plantings in cities. Abstract Urban tree plantings for climate-adapted and resilient cities need to consider growth, vitality and ecosystem services of the planted tree species particularly during drought. However, information on growth and ecosystem services of urban trees under changed climate conditions are rare for most species. This study investigated the intra-annual growth patterns of two common but physiologically contrasting urban tree species: small-leaved lime (Tilia cordata) and black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). Although meteorological variables at the study site in the outer city center of Munich, Germany for the year 2016 were similar to the long-term average climate (1961–1990) different growth patterns were found. This was mainly influenced by species characteristics (water use efficiency, wood anatomy) leading to different transpiration rates and reaction patterns to drought stress. Moreover, species' drought reactions compared to past years were analyzed in detail with a retrospective dendrochronological approach. Distinct species patterns were identified, highlighting the greater drought tolerance and recovery of R. pseudoacacia compared to T. cordata. These results show that under a drier and warmer climate T. cordata can provide more canopy air cooling for short periods of time due to high transpiration, albeit this is at the expense of great water demands and following growth declines under water shortage. Contrary, R. pseudoacacia proved to be a more suitable and adapted species at sites with less water availability due to better water use efficiency, even at the cost of low canopy transpiration though higher soil moisture and latent heat exchange from the soil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a research model of leaf investigation, based on biometric measurements and morphologic observations. In literature there are only few examples of this type of biometrical investigation and analysis model applied on spontaneous and even cultivated forms of plants. The article comprises biometrical and morphologic investigations on Tilia cordata Mill. (Tiliaceae) leaves. The measurements and observations were performed on 40 mature leaves of the studied species, including linear measurements, percentage ratio, angular measurements and other measurements such as: the semi-sum of secondary pairs of veins and the leaf surface as well. The biometric measurements were the basis of a mathematical calculation of the average values on Tilia cordata leaves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by plants is a simple, non-toxic and eco-friendly method. The purpose of this study was to develop a method for obtaining silver nanoparticles with biological properties. For reducing the silver ions, an extract of Tilia cordata (linden) flowers was used. Some parameters were investigated to optimize the synthesis method. Thus, the conditions of reaction were varied, such as pH, concentration of silver salt, different ratio of plant extract and silver salt, temperature and stirring time. The formation of nanoparticles was demonstrated by Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), Photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS), Electrophoretic light scattering (ELS). In order to determine possible biological applications, we tested the antimicrobial and the antioxidant activities. The results demonstrated that linden flowers could be used to obtain silver nanoparticles with an important potential in the development of some therapeutic agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While much research has addressed the aboveground response of trees to climate warming and related water shortage, not much is known about the drought sensitivity of the fine root system, in particular of mature trees. This study investigates the response of topsoil (0−10 cm) fine root biomass (FRB), necromass (FRN), and fine root morphology of five temperate broadleaf tree species (Acer platanoides L., Carpinus betulus L., Fraxinus excelsior L., Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl., Tilia cordata Mill.) to a reduction in water availability, combining a precipitation gradient study (nine study sites; mean annual precipitation (MAP): 920−530 mm year−1) with the comparison of a moist period (average spring conditions) and an exceptionally dry period in the summer of the subsequent year. The extent of the root necromass/biomass (N/B) ratio increase was used as a measure of the species’ belowground sensitivity to water deficits. We hypothesized that the N/B ratio increases with long-term (precipitation gradient) and short-term reductions (moist vs. dry period) of water availability, while FRB changes only a little. In four of the five species (exception: A. platanoides), FRB did not change with a reduction in MAP, whereas FRN and N/B ratio increased toward the dry sites under ample water supply (exception: Q. petraea). Q. petraea was also the only species not to reduce root tip frequency after summer drought. Different slopes of the N/B ratio-MAP relation similarly point at a lower belowground drought sensitivity of Q. petraea than of the other species. After summer drought, all species lost the MAP dependence of the N/B ratio. Thus, fine root mortality increased more at the moister than the drier sites, suggesting a generally lower belowground drought sensitivity of the drier stands. We conclude that the five species differ in their belowground drought response. Q. petraea follows the most conservative soil exploration strategy with a generally smaller FRB and more drought-tolerant fine roots, as it maintains relatively constant FRB, FRN, and morphology across spatial and temporal dimensions of soil water deficits.

Phyllonorycter issikii (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) has recently spread over a considerable part of the Eurasian continent. So far, in Europe, unlike in Russia, it has not significantly affected its food plant (Tilia cordata), but its effect may increase over time. The regulating potential of associated parasitoid natural enemies is still low, which probably allows further leaf miner range expansion and population growth. This species is potentially capable of inflicting considerable damage on its host. Therefore, it is important to study its natural enemies, especially their oviposition behaviour and biology. In this paper, we summarize the results of rearing experiments throughout the area it has recently occupied, including our own study in Hungary. Here we list 46 species of parasitoids recorded from P. issikii. None of these species are likely to be able regulate the abundance of P. issikii. Further studies are needed to determine their effect on the abundance of this host.

The article highlights aspects of dendroindication for nitrogen dioxide and sulfur pollution of surface air layers in the gardening landscape layout of the M.M. Gryshko National Botanic Garden, NAS Ukraine. There is a number of reasons to involve Tilia cordata Mill. as a dendroindicator of air pollution for the research in such conditions. Tree crown defoliation of Tilia cordata is an important sign to indicate the presence of atmospheric pollutants (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen) in concentration above 2.5 MPC. The results presented in the article explain the dependence of the pollutants gradation of spreading and the specifics of chosen dendroindicator defoliation within the studied gardening landscape area during 2007–2010. The study used Tilia cordata species within Boyarsky forestry as control subjects. The heterogenity of air pollution influence on the gardening landscape is explained. The data on fluctuating levels of dendroindicator defoliation are presented with reference to the levels of technogenic pollution stated during the period of research.

Tilia sibirica Bayer (Siberian lime) is endemic to the low mountain systems north of the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia, approximately 1,000 kms to the east of the natural range limit of its closest congeneric, the small-leaved lime ( Tilia cordata ). Some consider the taxon to be a subspecies of T. cordata . This putative pre-Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) relict may have had a stronghold in a refugium of the Altai Mountains and survived various waves of fluctuating climatic changes that occurred in the region. With continued climatic changes expected, these hardy but isolated populations can be important sources for population expansion. To date, we do not know the genetic status or history of this forest tree. This study uses standard population genetic and Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) analyses of microsatellite data to determine the genetic diversity and differentiation, clonal occurrence and date of divergence of the two lime taxa. The results show that T. sibirica and T. cordata are distinct biological units with significant genetic differentiation. The ABC analysis suggests a (Middle) Pleistocene divergence. We have revealed low within-population genetic diversity as well as high levels of clonality in T. sibirica. The focus now should be on restoring and conserving these small and isolated relict populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, a simple, rapid and efficient green method for silver nanoparticles synthesis was developed by using extracts from four medicinal plants: flowers of Tilia cordata, Matricaria chamomilla, Calendula officinalis and Lavandula angustifolia, acting as reducing and capping agents. Silver nitrate was used as a precursor. The effect of the sunlight exposure and/or the sonication treatment on the synthesis process was investigated. The ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) studies showed surface Plasmon resonance peaks between 432 nm and 448 nm, characteristic of spherical silver nanoparticles. The morphology of the nanoparticles produced was investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The proposed method could be easily implemented for any kind of scientific or industrial application due to its cost effective nature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Linden flower is a wildly used plant material among patients in the treatment of common cold symptoms and mucosa inflammations. However, the structure and bioactivity of flavan-3-ol derivatives present in infusions from flowers of Tilia cordata have not been studied so far. The aim of current study was to isolate and identify main procyanidins present in the flowers of small-leaved lime and to evaluate their influence on the inflammatory response of human neutrophils ex vivo. The chemical structure of isolated compounds was established by 1D and 2D NMR experiments. The bioactivity of obtained compounds was tested in human neutrophils model. Cytotoxicity and influence of compounds on apoptosis was established by flow cytometry. The levels of produced cytokines were established by ELISA after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The inhibition of the production of reactive oxygen species was checked by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence method after N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (f-MLP) induction. The phytochemical work resulted in the isolation of 10 compounds. Compounds were identified as oligomeric procyanidins and their precursor epicatechin. The potential anti-inflammatory activity of compounds was evaluated in the concentration range 5–20 μM. All compounds were able to decrease the production of ROS from f-MLP-stimulated neutrophils. Most of compounds were able to inhibit the LPS-induced release of IL-8. Some trimeric and tetrameric derivatives were also able to decrease the production of MIP-1β. Obtained results partially support the traditional usage of infusion from lime flowers in the treatment of symptoms of inflammation and irritation of mucosa in common cold, pharyngitis and tonsillitis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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