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Cacao Nacional Boliviano (CNB) is the denomination for cacao derived from wild populations found in the Bolivian Amazon, traditionally collected by local communities. But cultivation surfaces are increasing as CNB beans are recognised internationally for their organoleptic qualities. So far, little selection has been done on the semi-wild populations cultivated and agricultural practices might have to be adapted to better support farmers’ livelihoods. We studied three different agricultural systems: CNB in agroforestry with bananas, fruit and timber trees with a management focusing on weeding and cacao pruning (AF); CNB planted in the cleared understory of a largely unmanaged secondary forest with (SFwP) or without (SFnP) cacao tree pruning. We monitored the yearly dry bean yield, labour time required for field activities, and resulting efficiencies of these three systems on plots established in 2012. Cacao was planted using CNB progenies from locally selected trees. In all systems, the first cocoa pods matured 4 years after planting; production increased significantly in the 6th year and again between the 9th and 11th year. Cumulative dry yields in this third phase (2020-2022) were highest in SFnP (911.2 kg/ha), followed by AF (591.2 kg/ha) and SFwP (277.8 kg/ha). Heavy pruning was labour-intensive (up to 56% of total labour time) and limited yields but increased harvesting efficiency in the following years without pruning. In 2020-2022, harvesting in SFnP was 5 times more laborious as in SFwP and 2.7 times more as in AF, while its yield was only 3.3 and 1.5 times higher, respectively. Harvesting efficiency was thus higher in both pruned systems (AF: 7.3 kg/Workday, SFwP: 6.7 kg/WD), compared to the unpruned system (4.4 kg/WD). Our results underline the delicate balance between the practice of pruning, aiming at facilitating and concentrating the harvest at a limited height, and its effect on cacao physiology. Yet, association in AF shows that in completely managed

Phosphorus is a key nutrient for food production and essential for growth and development of food crops. Though phosphorous is abundant in the soil, more than 90 % of it is not available for plants. The low availability of phosphorous for plants is due to the fact it easily binds to other elements, making it unavailable for plant uptake. Hence, phosphorous is usually added as external fertiliser in agriculture. In organic farming as synthetic P fertilisers are prohibited, natural sources of phosphorous containing material are recommended (e.g., bone meal, guano, or rock phosphate). Among these available phosphorous sources, rock phosphate (RP) is one of the most promising. However, it is a challenge to extract phosphorous from RP to make it available to plants. It is specifically a challenge to find techniques for doing so that are suitable for local context. Our study region is located in central India, where we work with approx. 3000 organic cotton farmers. Cotton is the main cash crop for farmers in our region. Here we present results from a participatory approach, where we worked with farmers to find solutions to increase phosphorous availability from RP in organic cotton production. Through farmer workshops and field visits we first identified locally available products for acidulation of RP. The products identified were tamarind, tomato, mahua vinegar, gooseberry and buttermilk then we trialed these products in farmer fields to measure their effects. Buttermilk was identified as the most promising product. Being farmer driven, adoption potential of our technique was high; however, challenges remained. We will discuss the process and challenges of such participatory research approaches and ideas to improve their sustainability.

Organic agriculture is a promising solution to sustainably improve crop yields. For several crops, yield from organic farming have been recorded to be lower than yield from conventional farming. However, such data is context dependent and there is very little information on performance of organic systems in the tropics. Particularly, solid data on the benefits and drawbacks of organic agriculture in the tropics is still missing. In 2007, we set up a long-term farming system comparison trials (LTE) for cotton systems in Madhya Pradesh India. Cotton is the main cash crop in our region and is grown in a two-year crop rotation. The other crops grown with cotton in our region are chickpea, wheat and soybean. In our field trials we are comparing the following treatments: (i) organic, (ii) bio dynamic, (iii) conventional, and (iv) BT conventional (genetically modified) cotton. We have been taking data on multiple parameters such as crop yields, soil nutrients, soil microbial properties and system profitability. Our data indicates that with good management organic systems can become more sustainable than conventional systems both economically and ecologically. Multiple indicators in our trials show this; the performance of crops has improved over the years, reducing the profitability gap between organic and conventional farming systems. In addition, positive impacts on soil fertility indicators (e.g., soil organic carbon) are detectable after 10–12 years in our organic LTE systems. We have also recorded our organic systems to harbour higher biodiversity. Despite our positive results, adaption of best management practices by the farmers remains one of the biggest challenges. We need more studies on long-term cumulative effect of system approaches on fertility, health and the productive capacity of agricultural lands in conventional and organic farming systems. We need to understand what extent system approaches can enhance the resilience of cotton systems.

Socio-ecological resilience (SeR) is an integral aspect in enhancing farm system sustainability and this integration is being widely adopted in recent years in development projects. Multiple indicators are used to assess socio ecological resilience of suggested solutions in farming systems or, to design projects with an aim to ultimately enhance SeR. However, the indicators or the suggested solutions remain largely technical; often overlooking the role that social solutions or power relations play in the long term in farming systems sustainability. There is growing evidence indeed that unequal power relations in agriculture are a threat to food security worldwide. Hence, there is a need to focus on equity when determining indicator or when developing solutions for sustainable food systems. We set up a long-term farming systems programme in 2007 in three tropical countries (India, Kenya and Bolivia) to compare organic and conventional management systems across multiple parameters. In all the countries we have been working with small-scale farmers on specific cropping systems (cotton, cacao and maize). The approaches of our programme have been interdisciplinary fo- cusing on all the way from fundamental agronomic questions to participatory farmer research. Over the years multiple studies and analysis have been conducted within our programme to understand the socio-ecological dimensions of sustainable farming practices in our study areas. We will present compiled learnings of these studies with a focus on two of our study regions, India and Bolivia. We will particularly summarise the role that factors such as farmer networks, farmer cooperatives, caste and identity, motivation and extension services play (a) in understanding farming systems and, (b) in adoption of suggested solutions. Using these results, we will discuss additional parameters that need to be considered when assessing social-ecological resilience of farming systems, with a particular focus on power rela

Cotton is the most widely used fibre crop and quality parameters such as fibre length are crucial for successful processing. These quality parameters can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as nutrient supply to the plant and varieties used. Establishing a correlation between these influential factors and the quality parameters of cotton can help improve the production process and enable farmers to earn more income from their cotton production. This study aimed to assess product quality data from a long term farming systems comparison trial under semi-arid conditions in central India in regard to different management regimes. The trial has been running since 2007, comparing biodynamic, organic, and conventional with GM and without GM cotton management. All treatments include a two year crop rotation which is first-year cotton-wheat/chickpea and second-year soybean-wheat. To assess fibre quality, we took sampled plants for ginning and subsequent lab testing for quality parameters like fibre staple length, fibre fineness, maturity index, micronaire etc. Results show that no significant difference in quality parameters like fibre length, fibre fineness, short fibre index, maturity index in both the systems even less percentage of nitrogen was provided in an organic system. The results considering which factors are the most important and which are of lesser importance provide some insight into changes in management effect on lint yield and fibre quality and provide some basis for future investment in research. This bears relevance to stakeholders in the cotton industry including both Indian and international cotton merchants, ginners, spinners, textile mills and commodity exchange.

SysCom was initiated to provide evidence for the performance and viability of organic agricultural cropping systems in the tropics. While case studies and long term studies were available for temperate zones, little scientifically backed-up evidence was available to assess the potential of organic agriculture in sustainable development in countries within the tropical climate. Thus in 2007 long term trials in India, Bolivia and Kenya were established, comparing in each country two organic systems with two conventional systems based on locally relevant cropping systems and main crops (cotton, cocoa, maize). Combining the existing practical examples and recommendations from local agricultural institutions organic and conventional treatment were designed, putting high emphasis on the local relevancy and prevalent practices. After the systems established it became clear that organic systems in our long-term experiments (LTEs) were lacking behind in profitability and productivity, not offering a valuable approach for local farmers to sustain their livelihoods. In our analysis we had to realise that often a mere copy of conventional practices, substituting conventional with organic inputs would not suffice to provide solid evidence on the potential of organic agriculture in the tropics. Using the example of the SysCom program, we want to discuss the challenges and opportunities of adapting LTEs, confronting questions on how to adapt the three LTEs implemented in different countries to still be in nexus to each other, how to balance systems approaches to optimise the different compared treatments while still being comparable to each other and finally how to meet the golden mean of innovative and optimised farming approaches while being realistic and relevant to local contexts. The adaptations realised in the annual cropping system LTEs, such as changing input levels and seed material, introducing more complex intercropping patterns and crop rotations are proving to be valu

Traditional veterinary practices have taken a back seat to modern veterinary medicine in livestock health management in Africa. However, the latter is not able to cope with all health problems on livestock farms, especially in rural areas where access to quality veterinary drugs and services is not available. Adding to this is the low purchasing power of livestock farmers. They are forced to resort to traditional practices to treat their animals in case of disease, which is especially true for gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in small ruminants. This study aimed to identify, with the herders, the local woody plant species usually used to treat parasitic infections of small ruminants in West Africa. Indeed, in traditional medicine, woody species represent about 65 % of the most important African medicinal plants. An ethno botanical survey based on semi-structured interviews was conducted with 370 herders and agropastoralists in Senegal, Mali and Burkina Faso between June and July 2021. More than 60 % of the respondents stated that the use of tree-based remedies has a positive impact on animal health. Out of 81 herders surveyed in Senegal, 42.0 % used woody plants for animal health treatment. In Burkina Faso, 28.7 % out of 159 farmers used ligneous plants to treat their animals against gastrointestinal strongyles. In Mali, 16.4 % out of 130 farmers used parts of trees to treat small ruminants against GIN. Across the three countries, 20 woody species belonging to 10 botanical families were identified as being regularly used to treat GIN. Khaya senegalensis, Azadirachta indica and Faidherbia albida were the most commonly cited species, and at family level Fabaceae (67 %) dominated before Meliaceae (17 %) and Combretaceae (17 %). Leaves (50 %), pods (33 %) and bark (17 %) were the organs mainly used to produce herbal anthelmintics. The cross-country comparison of results revealed that, although farmers have a good knowledge of effective plant-based GIN control, preparati

Gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) are a major impediment to sheep health and productivity. Frequent use and under dosing of chemical anthelmintics (AH) have led to the development of GIN populations which are resistant to these drugs in many parts of the world. In West Africa, the importance of GIN infections in sheep is poorly documented and the potential problem of AH resistance is neglected. We therefore conducted an on-farm study to determine the efficacy of two AH (Albendazole and Ivermectine) that are frequently used in Mali, Burkina Faso and Senegal, the focal countries of the EU-funded project SustainSahel. Sheep carrying natural GIN infections were selected from another study on GIN prevalence and infestation intensity. In each country, 24 male sheep with a minimum faecal egg count of 500 eggs per gram were selected for the efficacy study. Sheep were randomly allocated to 3 treatment groups of 8 animals: Ivomec® (Ivermectin), Valbazen® (Albendazole), and Control (without treatment). AH doses were administered according to the manufacturers’ instructions after weighing the animals, namely Valbazen (oral) at 7.5 mg kg-1 body weight, Ivomec (subcutaneous) at 0.2 mg kg-1 body weight. The faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT), as recommended by World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology, was used to determine anthelmintic efficacy. For Ivomec®, FECR were 97 %, 95 % confidence interval (CI) (89%-100 %); 97 %, CI (93%-99 %) and 56 %, CI (24%-76 %) in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal, respectively. These results point to AH resistance of GIN to Ivermectin in Burkina Faso and confirm resistance to this drug in Senegal. In Mali, however, ivermectin did not show reduced efficacy. For Valbazen®, FECR were 99 %, 95 % CI (96%-100 %); 100 %, CI (99%-100 %) and 75 %, CI (43%-90 %) in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal, respectively. This corresponds to full efficacy of Albendazol in Mali and Burkina Faso and AH resistance in Senegal. We conclude that GIN r

Cocoa is mainly managed by smallholder farmers in the tropics and constitutes one of the most important export commodities, being an important source of income. Lately, conventional cocoa monoculture has been promoted to achieve high short-term productivity at the expense of deforestation. However, such systems have negatively affected the water cycle with more intense heavy rains and longer drought periods, which is threatening food security and human welfare. In that sense, the perception that farmers have on climate change is determinant to the adoption and implementation of adaptation measures and policies in agriculture. Thus, it is imperative a more agroecological approach to answer the question whether and to what extent cocoa farmers perceive and adapt their farming practices to the climatic variations, in conjunction with water use estimations of cocoa systems under different management. As such, the present study includes an analysis of farming practices’ adaptations to climate change and a comparison of evapotranspiration in cocoa cultivation under different management. In Bolivia, traditional cocoa production systems include shade trees. Particularly, cocoa agroforestry systems managed organically have proven to have smaller water footprint and are considered an effective nature-based solution to address climate change, biodiversity loss, food insecurity and rural poverty among other environmental and social challenges of this value chain. This study sought to assess evapotranspiration as a measure of water use in conventional monocultures and organic agroforestry systems in a long-term field trial in tropical Bolivia. In addition, to assess water and climate change-related management issues and their impacts on local rural livelihoods, farmers were interviewed to assess their perception of climate change, the adaptation of farming practices and water management related knowledge. The results provide a joint assessment of the water use, key characteristi

Integrating agroecological practices into farming systems can improve farming systems’ resilience, but reported effects vary across geographies and production systems. Enhancing the resilience of farming systems by introducing new agroecological practices comes with positive and negative tradeoffs. Farmers’ decision to adopt new agroecological practices or additional agroecological practices is driven by factors such as other resource availability and/ or return on investment. In addition, farmer decisions are sometimes driven by motivational factors rather than return on investment. We hypothesise that farmers’ awareness about their ability to cope with climate change is correlated with the number of agroecological practices followed by farmers. To assess the farmers’ perception of their ability to cope with climate change and which agroecological practices they followed, we surveyed 3038 farmers in rural regions of Chad, India, Niger, and Tanzania. Survey questions were standardised in preliminary focused group discussions with farmers and other stakeholders. Individual interviews were conducted with the respondents chosen through systematic sampling, irrespective of their farming practices or other demographic factors. Correlations between agroecological practices, gender, and the farmers’ perspectives on climate change were investigated using the FactoMineR package in R. The share of female farmers’ participation in the survey was 50.0 %. Prevalent production systems in the regions are rainfed and organic by default. Thus, most farmers mentioned a change in rainfall patterns as the most challenging adverse climate change in past years, followed by more disease incidences, increased temperatures, and droughts. Crop rotation, Intercropping, mulching, and crop diversification are the leading agroecological practices for farmers in the regions. About 70 % of farmers in the regions perceive that they cannot cope with climate change. Farmers’ perception of their abili

Compost plays a crucial role in sustainable agriculture as a rich source of organic matter, nutrients, and biota that improve soil health. Materials like Lantana camara and Tithonia diversifolia are readily available in the tropics to supplement nutrients in cattle manure during composting. There is however limited information on the succession of nutrients and microbes in compost as influenced by these materials. Moreover, prior data from the long-term farming system comparison trials in Kenya has shown significant mass and nutrient losses in compost. Compost emits GHGs which may be attributable to the nature of feedstock, duration of composting, and poor composting practices. This study sought to enumerate the contribution of composting material and duration on biological and nutrient succession in manure. A field experiment was conducted involving treatments based on grass clippings, Lantana, and Tithonia twigs with data collection every 21 days over 84 days. Other materials used in combinations were; fresh cow-dung and dry maize stalk in a ratio of 4:2:1 against the treatment material as per farmer practice. Our study showed significant losses of GHGs and nutrients during the early stages of composting with stability of these elements recorded towards the end of the composting period. However, significantly higher microbial populations were recorded at this stage but more diversity was observed at the latter stages of composting. Lantana-based compost had the highest microbial diversity, yet the lowest abundance among all compost treatments, implying the need for specialised microbes to break down this complex material compared to other sources. This makes it suitable for the introduction of diverse microbes to degraded soils and ecosystems but unsuitable in ecosystems requiring a rapid increase in microbial populations. Overall, the study showed that composting days had an overarching influence on nutrient evolution. We recommend mitigation measures to reduce n

One of the most widely used fiber crops in the world, cotton is utilised in manufacturing clothing and other goods. Its production is highly affected by the American bollworm pest, Helicoverpa armigera. To fight off the attacks of H. armigera, GMO Bt-cotton was designed, which now dominates India’s cotton production. In India, around 90 % of the total cotton production is sourced from Bt Cotton. However, as GMO crops are not allowed in organic farming the attacks of the American bollworm remain a major threat to organic cotton production. At our study site in Madhya Pradesh in central India, we tested different biopesticides on the American bollworm in organic cotton field trials. Three commercially available biopesticides containing the a) Nuclear polyhedrosis virus, b) Bacillus thuringiensis, and c) Metarhizium rileyi were evaluated and compared with the control, which was not treated against pest attacks. The experiment included four replications in 2021 and 2022. We monitored the pest occurrence and started applying the treatments when the economic threshold level was reached. We counted the number of larvae and eggs of the American bollworm on the cotton plants in regular scouting. In both years, the number of H. armigera on the cotton plants was significantly reduced compared to the control. All treated plots had significantly fewer damaged balls when compared to the controls. However, no significant effect on yield could be found. Further research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of commercially available biopesticide products in laboratory tests. Furthermore, we envisage insect ecology studies to better understand the pest dynamics affecting organic cotton production.

The socioeconomic and environmental benefits of organic farming have been widely explored in research, while topics like gender equity and labour are often neglected. In India, the influence of caste and gender identities adds another layer of complexity to these aspects. Using a case of a research and training project implemented in the Nimar Valley region of Madhya Pradesh since 2007, we explore gender and caste intersectionalities within conventional and organic cotton farming systems. The project promotes organic cotton cultivation and food crop diversification, and trains women from marginalised tribal communities, among others. We use a relational approach, as proposed by David Mosse, to understand differences in organic and conventional cotton farming systems in the representation of caste and gender and concerns and barriers to the involvement experienced by different actors. We interviewed 80 respondents employing participatory social network mapping, gendered seasonal calendars, in-depth interviews and participant observation in training, applied during a three-month fieldwork in 2022/23. Preliminary results show among others that, representation in terms of caste and gender has been static in both conventional and organic farming systems. Mainly females from scheduled castes (SC, Dalits) and scheduled tribes (ST, Tribals) are represented as casual labourers in seeding, weeding and cotton picking. The bargaining power of labourers, deciding both wages and working hours, has increased in recent years. This potentially is a positive social change, but puts a higher burden on organic cotton farmers as it is more labour-intensive compared to conventional farming. Our results further indicate that due to high labour wages, there is a resurgence of labour-sharing arrangements for cotton harvesting amongst rich upper-caste farmers and, novel involvement of upper-caste women in cotton farming activities. Tribal farmers in turn start growing conventional cotton. Al

Measuring the impact of project interventions becomes a more and more common request from donor organisations. In the quest for measurable impact and the aim to assess project interventions, the scientific community commonly uses surveys. Indeed, well-planned surveys and interviews are crucial for quantifiable tools such as impact evaluation, which aims to establish a causal relationship between the project intervention and its impact on people’s lives. However, these tools are highly demanding in costs and scientific conceptualisation, usually exceeding the project’s scope. Often a false compromise is made, leading to extensive survey data, which lacks comparability across surveyed groups, causal connection with interventions, or baseline data. When such anonymous quantitative data lacks rigid scientific validation it tells us very little about the lives of the interviewed people. Conclusions from such data make it hard for us to understand the realities of people involved in the project and how the track of their lives might have changed through exposure to project interventions. We have tried out a diametrically different approach within the system comparison trial in the tropics (SysCom) in India. The project works with farmers and a team of national and international researchers on organic cotton. For the series “Faces of Organic Cotton”, we have talked to eleven people involved at some level within the project, including farmers, researchers, cotton processors, and school children. The conversations followed general questions and were guided by curiosity to understand more of the interviewee’s life beyond the project. The result was 11 highly personal stories, where the project and its effect are only one facets of people’s lives. We have considered the inherent challenges of such an approach: translation, bias to over-positivity, and white saviorism. The stories were written in first person, attempting to represent their own stories in their own words as accu

What are locally and culturally relevant sustainability criteria of cocoa farmers in Ecuador?

Sustainability concepts are contested and inherently normatively charged. Given the high levels of complexity and uncertainty in sustainability studies, it is necessary to transition towards a transdisciplinary approach to collaboratively generate knowledge that is suitable for specific local and cultural circumstances. This study aims to explore the perspectives of cocoa farmers in the coastal and Amazonian regions of Ecuador on their definition of sustainability and the locally relevant criteria that must be met to achieve it. A total of 20 female and 23 male farmers were provided with photo cameras, and over a period of 4 weeks, they analysed the pictures taken within their group to identify the elements that contribute to sustainability in their lives as cocoa producers. The visual medium of photographs proved to be an effective way to overcome social and language barriers, as participants were motivated by the group setting to share and discuss the realities presented in the images, whether they depicted their own experiences or those of their peers. In both study regions, lists of approximately 40 sustainability criteria that are locally relevant were compiled. The importance, development, and influential actors for each criterion were documented, and the images were categorised according to the sustainability criteria they represented. The results indicate that the environment in which farmers operate greatly shapes their views on what is necessary for sustainable livelihoods. Thus, local perspectives should be considered when developing strategies to enhance sustainability. The key strength of this study was that the participants were responsible for selecting the topics of interest through their photographs and discussions, while the researchers merely facilitated the process.

This study was carried out to provide missing information on the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections of small ruminants in three West African countries. The use of communal grazing areas in these countries favours the spread of GIN infections across small ruminants and may reduce production performances and herders’ income. Faecal samples of 1,235 small ruminants were collected in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal in late dry (May), rainy (August) and early dry (November) season of 2022. Individual Faecal Egg Counts (FEC) were performed by a modified McMaster technique. Animals were selected in several villages according to the following parameters: species (sheep, goats), age (young: 6–12 months, adult: >12 months) and sex (male, female). The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to assess the influence of these parameters on FEC intensity, expressed as eggs per gram of faeces (EPG). The overall prevalence of GIN was 70.8 %, 82.6 % and 66.8 % in Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal, respectively. In all countries, the rainy season corresponded to the highest infection period. The mean ± standard deviation of EPG across all countries was 230 ±350, 1,023 ±1,176 and 424 ±352 for late dry, rainy and early dry season. Infection intensity was higher in young than in adult animals, and in male than in female animals in the rainy season, whereas no differences could be observed between these groups in the late dry season. Similarly, there was no significant difference in the mean EPG between sheep and goats late dry season. The results indicate that better monitoring and control of GIN infections are necessary during the rainy season and especially in young and male sheep and goats. For further study it would also be interesting to learn more about anthelmintic resistance in GIN and non-allopathic control options.

Selecting qualitatively high cotton cultivars is a critical aspect of cotton breeding programs. However, choosing cultivars is not straightforward. Genotype × environment (G×E) interactions have to be considered when choosing varieties for cultivation. This holds especially true in organic farming where natural stress resistance is crucial in the absence of genetic modifications. For on-station trials, GGE biplots have become a popular tool for selecting cultivars. We applied the method to data from our on-station trials conducted at five sites in India and for 29 cotton cultivars. The sites included different farming conditions and the cultivars were a mix of hybrids and non-hybrids from the Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium arboreum species. Using the PPBstats package in R, we identified suitable varieties for each site. Cultivar performance varied greatly between sites. Varieties bred at a site performed particularly well, showing the importance of environment-specific breeding. On-farm trials are a participatory breeding approach that enables farmers to participate directly in the decision-making. However, estimating G×E effects is difficult due to the trial design. To analyse our on-farm trials conducted on 102 farms in India, testing 32 G. hirsutum and G. arboreum varieties, we applied a hierarchical Bayesian G×E model. The analysis was done using the PPBstats package in R. Farm clusters in which the tested cultivars performed similarly were identified. Well-performing varieties for each cluster were found through mean comparisons within each farm. Furthermore, a GGE biplot analysis was performed by pooling farms along agroclimatic zones to identify suitable cultivars on an agroclimatic level. The preliminary results from the GGE biplots have lower precision for the individual farmers that participated in the trials than the hierarchical Bayesian method but can be used for giving recommendations to policymakers and stakeholders for selecting cultivars based on

Bolivia is among the countries with the highest deforestation rates in Latin America due to the expansion of commercial agriculture, timber production, and mining activities. At the same time, smallholder farmers face challenges such as the impacts of climate change, soil degradation, and unstable market prices. Local and international actors have promoted dynamic agroforestry (DAF) as an approach to improve living conditions, restore natural habitats and increase adaptive capacity for over two decades. Currently, stakeholders involved in promoting DAF in the Alto Beni region of Bolivia seek to understand better how the approach has integrated with and potentially changed local socio-ecological realities. Accordingly, our goal was to explore whether DAF training and the possible implementation of DAF have contributed to new ways of doing, knowing, meaning, and organising in smallholder agroecosystems in the study area. We draw on relational concepts, including nonhuman agency and the emphasis on dynamics and processes, to frame our research interest. We used participant observation, interviews, narrative walks, and a mapping exercise to address the research question with twenty farmers and other stakeholders in the region. Preliminary results indicate that participating in the DAF training has indeed created space for exchange, reconsideration, and re-strengthening of social-ecological relations. By engaging more deeply with the roles and needs of flora, fauna and soil, feelings of kinship were rekindled, according to participants. We suggest that this perception shift towards reciprocity and care will play a major role in initiating long-term changes in farming practices. The participants also attempted to raise awareness and encourage their family and community members to cease practicing shifting cultivation and to diversify their production systems. Ongoing follow-up activities and consistent communication with promoting organisations will be essential for maint

Cotton plants are a primary sources of worlds’ industrial textile and it is estimated that globally approx. 2.78 % of arable land is under cotton plant cultivation. Conventional cultivation of cotton is a highly input-intensive process, requiring large quantities of pesticides, fertilisers and water resources. Growing cotton organically can significantly reduce negative environmental impacts of cotton. However, yield of organic cotton is often recorded to be lower than the yield of conventional cotton. There is a need to develop system-based approaches that increase productivity of the cotton systems. Our study is based on a long-term trial that has been comparing organic and conventional cotton systems since the year 2007, in central India. In our study region cotton is grown in a two-year crop rotation with wheat and soybean. For better adaption of organic cotton production, it is crucial to increase overall economic returns from all crops involved in the cotton rotation system. In the initial phases of our study we recorded a yield gap of up to 25 % between organic and conventional cotton production. To mitigate this yield gap, we adopted multiple best practice approaches using agroecological principles. Our recent results show that such approaches can not only reduce the yield gap but also increase soil organic carbon in the organic cotton systems; resulting in systems that are potentially more resilient to climatic changes. We will discuss our results and highlight the need to invest in agroecological and socio-economic research to eliminate yield gaps between organic and conventional agriculture and to identify barriers to adoption of sustainable techniques.

The study endeavoured to investigate the growth attributes as well as to provide economic analysis of broiler chicken supplemented with Fermented Mansanitas Leaves (FML). An experiment was carried out from October to November 2019 and employed a Completely Randomised Design. Four (4) treatments with three (3) replications with five (5) experimental chicks per treatment were prepared in the study. A total of sixty (60) day-old chicks were randomly selected and were distributed to different treatments. The treatments employed include the following: Treatment 1 (Control 1.5 gram per liter of water), Treatment 2 (10 milliliter of FML per liter of water), Treatment 3 (20 milliliter of FML per liter of water) and Treatment 4 (30 milliliter of FML per liter of water). Data such as the average chick cost and, average daily feed and water intake were collected to calculate the feed and supplementation cost per unit. Average dressed weight and average price of dressed chicken were also gathered to calculate the sales per unit. From the data obtained, gross margin per unit was calculated. Data gathered were analysed using Analysis of Variance, and Tukey’s test was employed to compare significant differences among treatment means. Results revealed that supplement cost and gross margin per unit showed significant differences among treatment means. Other indicators such as chick cost, feed costs and sales per unit revealed no significant differences. It was concluded that a supplementation of 20 milliliter of Fermented Mansanitas Leaves per liter of water showed significant increase in gross margin per unit.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is commonly produced in full-sun monoculture cropping systems to increase yields in the short term. Nevertheless, cocoa is a suitable crop for production under shaded conditions and is traditionally cultivated in agroforestry systems in Latin America. To ensure productivity and profitability, however, the development of best practices for shade management is crucial, but shade tree pruning is not commonly practised. This study investigates the influence of pruning shade trees in cocoa-based organic agroforestry systems in Bolivia on agronomic and economic performance. Four organic agroforestry farms were selected, where shade trees were not pruned for at least 10 years. At each site, half of the plot was kept unpruned and the other half was pruned, while all other management practices were kept equal. Data on yield formation were collected subsequently for two harvesting seasons. The trial results show a significant increase in cocoa yield under pruning conditions ranging from 28 % to 82 % compared to unpruned plots. This is attributed to an increase in flowering and fruit set in pruned plots. No differences in the incidence of pests and diseases in the pods were found between both treatments. To evaluate, whether pruning shows an economic benefit for farmers, different scenarios of yield increase based on the minimum, average, and maximum yield of local cocoa producers were used. Other sources of income, such as by-crops, were not considered in the calculations. For the average yield level of 287.4 kg ha−1 (dry), an increase of 51 % in two consecutive years will cover the pruning costs. Despite the promising results and indication, that the yield increase will last for more than two years, the initial costs for pruning might still discourage farmers. Therefore, financing programs for farmers that support agroforestry tree pruning are necessary to increase both cocoa production and farmer’s income.

Agroforestry systems for cocoa production are commonly promoted for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation and adaptation as well as for food security and risk mitigation. Generally, these systems include timber, legume or fruit trees, and sometimes additional crops. Knowledge gaps exist about the economic performance of cocoa based agroforestry systems, including the by-crops. Here we present the economic performance of 5 cocoa production systems from planting to entering the mature stage (11 years). In a long-term trial in Bolivia, a gradient of complexity from monocultures, agroforestry systems to successional agroforestry systems (SAFS) is studied. Additionally, for monocultures and agroforestry, conventional and organic management are compared, while SAFS are managed organically. Income was calculated taking into account yields of cocoa, fruit trees and by-crops with farm gate prices. Only for cocoa organic premium prices were reached and taken into account. Labour time was registered for management, input preparation and post-harvest. Cocoa yields were lower in the agroforestry systems compared with monocultures, and lowest in SAFS. For monocultures, they were higher under conventional management, while in agroforestry systems management had no influence. Total system yields in agroforestry systems (dry matter) were 3–4 times higher than in monocultures. This was mainly due to banana production in agroforestry systems and from a diversity of by-crops in SAFS. Income over all years was comparable among all systems. In agroforestry systems, cocoa was responsible for more than 50 % of the income, while in SAFS the share of cocoa was smaller, as some crops like pineapples or peach palm had good markets in the region. The income generated per workday invested during the whole period did not differ between the systems. Income analysis shows the importance of cocoa as a cash crop, but also the potential of by-crops depending on the development of their

Unlike cacao monocultures, cacao agroforestry systems offer a wide range of additional ecosystem services and values to the farmers, such as (i.a. regulating pests and diseases, balancing the understory climate and carbon sequestration) and enable a higher independence from the main crop by generating a potential additional income. To assess the standing timber volume and value, a tree inventory was conducted in 2017 in 16 smallholder cacao agroforestry plots in Alto Beni, Bolivia. Farmers and experts were interviewed to identified the challenges for the timber production in these agroforestry systems. The timber trees on the plots had mainly an age of about 10 20 years (mean 15.5 years) but some trees were also in the range between 2–40 years. A total number of 2’941 trees were counted on all the plots and 20 % of it were Swietenia macrophylla, which makes it the most popular timber species. Other very common species were Myroxylon balsamum (12 %), Amburana cearensis (11 %) and Centrolobium ochroxylum (10 %). The average timber tree density was 230 trees/ha and the standing timber volume was 46 m3/ha. The standing timber per plot had an estimated average value of 12’947 USD/ha at the time. Because of lack of professional timber processing, such as timber transportation and sawmill, the loss in timber volume is estimated around 40 %. Additionally, farmers are challenged with trimming and pruning of trees as well as with the legal requirements. With the aim to increase farmer’s income from timber trees we suggest the following measures at three levels: (1) improving plantation layout (density, layout, species) and tree management (criteria for selection for cut off trees, trimming and pruning); (2) to support a more professional timber logging and processing to decrease losses and (3) to create service providers such as farmer owned cooperatives for logging, sawing, registration of trees and logging permits.

The mountainous northwest of Vietnam is home for the majority of the country’s ethnic minorities. Poverty and food insecurity are common in the region, increasing population and land scarcity have induced the expansion of agricultural areas and consequent decline of land productivity due to soil erosion and land degradation. Local farmers have begun to practice agroforestry through the introduction of high value trees into traditional cropping systems with various combinations of timber, fruit, nut forage trees and annual crops. However, because of inherent production risks and many remaining uncertainties, assessing the long-term performance of agroforestry has remained challenging. We simulated prospective system benefits of agroforestry options by developing comprehensive and holistic models that aimed to explicitly consider all relevant risks and uncertainties. The initial findings reveal model components such as drought and frost and potential extreme weather events as the primary risks to agroforestry in the region. The analysis approach is a promising tool for ex-ante assessments of other planned interventions.

Homemade organic pest control products offer an ecological, healthy and low-cost alternative to ready-made products. Yet the recipes are not standardised and the products vary in quality and concentration of the active ingredients. bioRe R, together with the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), engages in research activities to address this challenge and improve pest management strategies in organic farming. During the cotton cropping season 2013–14 one on-station and two on-farm trials were conducted with the objective of comparing different spraying intervals of the most commonly used home-made organic pest control products in order to identify an optimum level of crop protection. The study focused on the effect of the spraying intervals on the most important sucking pests. Besides sucking pest incidences, data on plant stress symptoms and yield formation as well as economic parameters were also collected. Additional on-station trials were established to investigate different measures of early stage crop protection and to detect specific effects of three self made products against certain sucking pests. The products were prepared according to recipes standardised by bioRe R after careful research and hands on experience of its associated scientists and extension workers. This knowledge was reproduced in pictorial technical leaflets, which are easy-to-understand for the local farmers. A total of 11 leaflets — on seed treatments, early stage protection measures, pest control sprays, effective spraying technique and growth promoter were designed in both English and Hindi and will be used for dissemination activities. On-station results were inconclusive due to low pest pressure in this season, as well as the small size of the trial plots. Results of on-farm trials revealed that a suitable strategy for pest monitoring is needed for farmers to determine at what time point pest control interventions are indicated. Further research is needed to understand th

The cocoa mirid (Monalonion dissimulatum) is one of the major pests in cocoa cultivation in Alto Beni, Bolivia. The most common control method is the manual removal of the nymphs. This practice is time-consuming, and therefore farmers often do not follow it. Hence there is an urgent need for more efficient practices to control this important pest. This study evaluated the pathogenicity of two strains of Beauveria bassiana for the control of Monalonion dissimulatum on cocoa: a non-native, commercialised strain (Probiobass MR, Probiotec S.R.L.), and a locally isolated, native strain of Alto Beni, which is not yet commercialised. Moreover, a silicon-based product (TECSIL PMR) was tested. In addition, the effect of different degrees of infestation with Monalonion dissimulatum on different stages of cocoa pod development was examined. In order to investigate these questions, several field trials were carried out at the experimental station of Sapecho between June and September 2013. The foreign Beauveria bassiana strain was the most effective bio-pesticide with a mortality rate of 63.3% in adults and 49.1% in nymphs. Cocoa pods in their early stages of development were highly susceptible to attack by Monalonion dissimulatum. On the other hand, fully developed cocoa pods showed a rather strong resistance to attacks: no effects on cocoa wet bean yield were recorded up to about 70% of damaged tissue on the surface of the cocoa pods. However, when the damage increased above 70 %, it had a strong impact on yield, amounting up to 50.4% loss. Damaged pods started desiccating, and fully damaged pods completely desiccated causing total yield loss. It is concluded that the foreign strain of Beauveria bassiana may be the most efficient to control Monalonion dissimulatum in the field. More on-farm field trials need to be conducted over longer time periods of time in order to elucidate whether the observed effects will be reflected in higher cocoa yields in the farmer’s context. It i

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) trees have a lifespan of up to 100 years in their natural environment, the lower strata of tropical alluvial forests. Sustainability of global cocoa production is at stake due to the deterioration of soil fertility, high losses due to pests and diseases (P&D) and old tree stock. Producing cocoa in shaded, low input agroforestry systems offers a potential solution for achieving long-term productivity and sustainability. However, shade-tolerant cocoa clones are needed which are productive and resistant to P&D, as well as meeting the quality standards requested by the industry. In Bolivia, the cocoa mirid (Monalonion dissimulatum) and the novel disease Frosty Pod Rot (“Monilia” Moniliophthora roreri) are among the most devastating P&D. The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and its local partners have been conducting cocoa production systems research in the Alto Beni region of Bolivia since 2008. A participatory rural appraisal revealed that indeed, how to reduce incidences of the cocoa mirid and Frosty Pod Rot was the top priority of cocoa farmers. Furthermore, a need for evaluating the productivity of different cocoa clones and for the documentation of best practices was expressed. In order to address these points, several research activities were carried out: 1. 16 cocoa clones have been evaluated for productivity and susceptibility to P&D for four consecutive years (2010—13) in on-farm trials at multiple locations. 2. The yield development and prevalence of P&D in the fields of four outstanding farmers was assessed for two years (2012–13) Data analysis revealed that some locally selected clones (elite tree selection program) were not only among the most productive, but also showed earliest maturation and some degree of resistance to Monilia (i.e. with lower incidences of the disease). Thus these clones hold the potential to escape attacks by P&D which occur later on in the season and may serve as a basis for further germplas

Cocoa is a crucial export commodity for many developing countries and provides income for millions of smallholders. However, cocoa cultivation has resulted in habitat destruction, biodiversity loss and soil degradation. While much of the world’s cocoa is produced in arguably unsustainable full-sun monoculture systems, shaded agroforestry systems may be an alternative for sustainable cocoa production. However, data-based information on advantages and limitations of different cocoa production systems are limited and pairwise comparisons on the long-term performance of cocoa monocultures and agroforestry systems under conventional and organic management are literally inexistent. The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) is pioneering to fill this knowledge gap with a unique long term field trial in tropical Bolivia. The trial was established in 2008 and consists of six systems: two monocultures (MONO CONV/ORG) and two agroforestry systems (AF CONV/ORG) under conventional and organic management, one successional agroforestry system (SAFS, organic only) with dynamic shade management, and a fallow system of the same age serving as a reference for biodiversity and soil fertility studies. The systems aim to represent current smallholder cocoa farmers’ practices. Parameters such as the tree development, yield of cocoa and by-crops, incidences of pests and diseases, soil fertility, carbon stocks, nutrient balances, economic data and biodiversity are regularly assessed. Five years after planting, results showed significantly shorter tree circumference (18% and 33 %) in AF systems and SAFS, respectively, compared to MONO systems. Tree circumference correlated strongly with cocoa dry bean yield which was, as expected, highest in MONO CONV (603 kg ha−1). By-crops such as plantain, cassava, pineapple, etc. were harvested in AF systems and SAFS, which may compensate for lower cocoa yields in the first years. Future research will investigate cocoa performance after the es

The Alto Beni region on the eastern foothills of the Andes accounts for 90% of certified organic cacao production in Bolivia and other tropical products for the city of La Paz. In the region more than 2200 households strongly depend on the cultivation of cacao. Cacao is cultivated on small holder farms mostly in diversified agroforestry systems. These systems contribute to both the conservation of biodiversity and the food security of the farmers. An outbreak of the frosty pod disease caused by Moniliophthora roreri in 2011 is now threatening these relatively sustainable production systems. Examples all over Latin America showed the abandonment and elimination of cocoa systems and the loss of biodiversity and local revenues after its attack. Frosty pod rot is an extremely invasive and destructive disease causing yield losses of 30–80% after establishment in a region. An efficient and applicable disease management strategy should address both, ecologic and socioeconomic conditions of the entire agro-ecological system. Scientific knowledge must therefore be complemented with the local farmers’ knowledge in general and especially their local knowledge on disease management. The aim of this qualitative study was to gather farmers’ local disease knowledge to building a fundament for the participatory development of a disease management strategy. Data was collected by combined 24 in depth interviews with on-farm field visits. We found that there is a certain lack of ecosystem knowledge among the ethnically diverse farmers group, which might be due to the recent colonisation of the area. Cacao cultivation knowledge is present on a basic level but is unequally distributed and the level of performance of disease prevention and control practices lags behind their level of awareness. It was also found that the process of knowledge formation is ongoing and co-evolving with the active adaptation of the cultivation system. Most sustainable practices related to an additional labou

The debate on the relative benefits of conventional and organic farming systems is more topical than ever. The achievements of conventional high-input agriculture were largely brought about at the cost of deteriorating soil fertility; furthermore, they were based to a large extent on fossil fuels. Developing more sustainable farming practices on a large scale is of utmost importance. However, information about the performance of agricultural production systems under organic and conventional management in tropical and subtropical regions is largely lacking. This study aimed to assess agronomic and economic data from a long-term farming systems comparison trial under semi-arid conditions in central India. Four two-year crop rotations comprising cotton-soybean-wheat under biodynamic, organic and conventional management were investigated, including one conventional system with and one without transgenic Bt cotton, between 2007 and 2010. Results showed 13% lower yields in organic compared to conventional systems. Yields in cotton, soybean and wheat were on average 14 %, 7% and 15% lower, respectively. However, production costs of organic systems were on average 32% lower than those of conventional systems, which led to similar gross margins in all systems. To our knowledge, this is the first long-term field trial comparing the agronomic and economic performance of organic, conventional and conventional+Bt cotton-based farming systems. The results of our study suggest that organic farming is a promising alternative to conventional farming in cotton-based production systems in central India. The less capital intensive nature of organic systems may be particularly interesting for smallholder farmers as it decreases dependence on loans for farm inputs. Therefore, our findings have the potential to be useful for decision-making and in turn may lead to a redirection of agricultural policies.

In Malaysia an intensively managed high input full sun cocoa plantation can reach high yields of 1.5 to 2 t dry beans per ha. Following a high production period of 10 years the yields often decrease markedly. Focusing on leading depleted cacao plantations sustainably back to full production a research project was initiated in June 2011 using a diversification approach with agroforestry systems. The experimental site is located on a large commercial farm in the humid tropical lowlands of peninsular Malaysia, in the region of Kuala Lipis. In a field trial with a strip-split-plot design, three different production systems, mainly characterised by diversification levels (mono culture to high diversity agroforestry) and accordingly different external input levels (high to low), are compared under two tree age conditions: newly planted and old rehabilitated cocoa trees, after the removal of the original canopy back to the leader structure. The existing twenty-two-year-old plantation with the original canopy and a high input level serves as control treatment. When cacao yields decline after the initial high production period trees are often replanted. This results in a non-productive phase lasting several years before the young trees start to develop pods and even longer before yields reach a remunerative level. Rehabilitating old low producing trees on the other hand, as practised in the present experiment, is expected to re-establish higher yields more quickly than re-planting. The first full harvest in the trial started in September 2012, 15 months after the rehabilitation pruning. Between September 2012 and March 2013 (main harvest) an average of 462 kg dry beans per ha were harvested in the control treatment. The yields of the common practice treatment already amounted to 24.9 % of the control. This is a very promising result, especially in view of the development of young trees which will take at least another year before the first pod development. Yields in the agro

Cocoa based small scale agriculture is the basic livelihood of most farming families in the region of Alto Beni in the Bolivian Andes. Cocoa cultivation is affected by climate change impacts, soil degradation, pests and plant diseases, and insecure cocoa prices. From a sustainable development point of view, cocoa farms need thus to become more resilient. Resilience refers to the ability within a farming system to reduce the sensitivity to stress factors while maintaining productivity, the capacity for self-organisation, to learn, and to adapt to change. Resilience can be subdivided in the three features buffer capacity, self-organisation, and adaptive capacity. This study addresses differences in resilience of organic and non-organic cocoa farms, and the most important features that influence social-ecological resilience in cocoa farming systems. Indicators for resilience were defined in a transdisciplinary process with local experts and cocoa farmers in a workshop and focus groups. Indicators for buffer capacity were tree diversity, crop diversity, and the diversity of income sources of the farming family. Indicators for self-organisation were the interaction with farmers’ organisations, their subsistence level, cocoa yields, and the annual family income. Adaptive capacity was assessed by inquiring the number of courses on cocoa cultivation family members had participated in, and the number of information sources they had. We interviewed 52 certified and non-certified households and conducted an in-depth participant observation with 15 households from the sample. It resulted that organic farms in the research area were more diversified (tree species in cocoa plots: 4.4 vs. 1.9, crop diversity: 8.4 vs. 6.7 crop varieties on cocoa farms), and had higher cocoa yields (506 kg ha−1 yr−1 vs. 335.8 kg ha−1 yr−1, both without external inputs). Annual family income was significantly higher on organic farms with 7530.2 vs. 6044.4 USD. Organic farmers had participated in more

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) grows naturally as an understory tree in tropical forests and produces well under shaded and non-shaded conditions. It is cultivated by small scale farmers in South America under various conditions, ranging from monocultures to different kinds of agroforestry systems. While in monocultures it is exposed to direct sunlight, one or various tree species shade the cocoa in agroforestry systems. Also organic cocoa cultivation is becoming more and more popular due to premium prices and increasing ecological consciousness. In Alto Beni, Bolivia, the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and local partners have established a long-term field trial to compare cocoa production systems. The bi-factorial randomised block design includes management and biodiversity factors combined to the following five cocoa treatments: monoculture and agroforestry systems both under organic and conventional management, and successional agroforestry system (high plant species diversity) under organic management and for further comparison fallow plots of same age as the cocoa plots. Research is done in all fields of agronomic, economic and environmental interest. This study focuses on the comparison of the canopy openness of the different cocoa production systems and fallow plots. Knowledge about the canopy openness enables the estimation of light entering the production system, especially on the cocoa layer (photosynthesis relevant) and also on the soil as canopy openness influences the microclimate in the plantation. Another aspect of the canopy is the impact on the throughfall within the plot. Over the time, variations in the canopy structure indicate the production of biomass, of nutrient enrichment by throughfall (rain-wash and nutrient leaf leaching in the canopy) and may indicate pruning necessities when the plant cover above the cocoa exceeds critical values. To estimate the canopy openness, in the years 2012 and 2013 hemispherical photography was tak

One of the most essential limiting factors of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) productivity worldwide is pests and diseases. Each of the major production regions has its specific pests and diseases. Reported yield losses range from minor to almost 100 per cent. In Alto Beni, located in the Amazonian watershed of the department La Paz, Bolivia, the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and its local partners are addressing several problems of cocoa producers using a participatory technology development approach. Problems were identified in a participatory way and are, in order of priority, i) to reduce the incidence of pests and diseases, mainly the cocoa mirid (Monalonion dissimulatum) and Frosty Pod Rot (Moniliophthora roreri); ii) to evaluate the productivity of different cocoa varieties (local selections, introduced clones), and iii) to document the management practices and plantation layouts of high yielding cocoa farmers. In order to develop novel biological pest control measures, both the knowledge of cocoa yield development in the course of the harvest period, as well as the dynamics of pests and diseases are of great interest. Data from three different research activities of the mentioned project are analysed for yield development, the appearance, and the incidence of pests and diseases, where available. The research data are from: a) On-farm trials in multiple locations which were established in 2004. The performance of 16 cocoa varieties has been assessed for 3 years (2010–2012). b) Four high yielding cocoa farmers’ fields (2012 only). c) A long-term field experiment assessing the sustainability of five cocoa production systems (2011 and 2012). The trial investigates the influence of monocultures and different agroforestry systems under organic and conventional management on the yield development, among other agronomic, economic and environmental parameters.

Mutualistic root microorganisms such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can ameliorate plant nutrition through an extended extra-radical hyphal network and by nutrient mobilisation. Running under the Indo-Swiss Collaboration in Biotechnology (ISCB), our project focuses on the integration of AMF and PGPR as biofertilisers in wheat-rice and wheat-black gram systems.

The bark of Warburgia ugandensis is widely used as an herbal medicine in Kenya and other parts of Africa. It is used against stomach-ache, malaria and is active against different bacterial and fungal infections. However, the intensive use of the bark is severely damaging the trees. In our experiments we used different plant parts to find a less harmful and sustainable way of using the tree.