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The change in the phase, from quiescence to surge, may perturb the glacier’s dynamical behavior. To understand these changes through geospatial technique, the fastest moving tidewater Monacobreen Glacier, Svalbard, was studied for the year 2016–2019. It was elucidated that the surge had initiated during 2017–2018 before it the glacier was in quiescence since 2001. Initially, the glacier radar zones, namely percolation refreeze, lower percolation, and clean ice, were identified using the multi-temporal SAR data. These zones were utilized to delineate the equilibrium line altitude, and it was found that it is continuously moving down during surging, unlike the quiescence phase. The accumulation area ratio was always more than 0.67 throughout the analysis. The seasonal change in glacier surface velocity for both the phases was estimated, adapting the most appropriate Offset Tracking approach using the SAR data. The mean velocity over the main trunk was found to vary from 0.5 to 4 m/day. Thereafter, Glen's flow law equation was used to estimate the ice-thickness and found that the glacier has an average thickness range of 216–326 m in quiescence and 136–244 m during the surging. The analysis depicted that the basal shear stresses are increasing with surging, and the viscosity is decreasing. It can be said that the transition of the glacier from quiescent to surging phase has entirely changed its dynamic behavior and characteristics. Further, in the absence of field observations, the geospatial technique may provide reasonable estimates of the glacier’s physical and dynamical parameters.

The aerodynamic roughness length (z(0)) is an important parameter in the bulk approach for calculating turbulent fluxes and their contribution to ice melt. However, z(0) estimates for heavily crevassed tidewater glaciers are rare or only generalised. This study used uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) to map inaccessible tidewater glacier front areas. The high-resolution images were utilised in a structure-frommotion photogrammetry approach to build digital elevation models (DEMs). These DEMs were applied to five models (split across transect and raster methods) to estimate z(0) values of the mapped area. The results point out that the range of z(0) values across a crevassed glacier is large, by up to 3 orders of magnitude. The division of the mapped area into sub-grids (50 m x 50 m), each producing one z(0) value, accounts for the high spatial variability in z(0) across the glacier. The z(0) estimates from the transect method are in general greater (up to 1 order of magnitude) than the raster method estimates. Furthermore, wind direction (values parallel to the ice flow direction are greater than perpendicular values) and the chosen sub-grid size turned out to have a large impact on the z(0) values, again presenting a range of up to 1 order of magnitude each. On average, z(0) values between 0.08 and 0.88 m for a down-glacier wind direction were found. The UAV approach proved to be an ideal tool to provide distributed z(0) estimates of crevassed glaciers, which can be incorporated by models to improve the prediction of turbulent heat fluxes and ice melt rates., The Cryosphere, 15 (12), ISSN:1994-0416, ISSN:1994-0424

This study evaluates the recidivism impact of the Tidewater Reentry Initiative (TRI) for medium and high-risk juveniles released from secure statewide facilities. TRI used an intensive case managem...

Glacier mass loss in Alaska has implications for global sea level rise, fresh water input into the Gulf of Alaska and terrestrial fresh water resources. We map all glaciers (>4000 km2) on the Kenai Peninsula, south central Alaska, for the years 1986, 1995, 2005 and 2016, using satellite images. Changes in surface elevation and volume are determined by differencing a digital elevation model (DEM) derived from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer stereo images in 2005 from the Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar DEM of 2014. The glacier area shrunk by 543 ± 123 km2 (12 ± 3%) between 1986 and 2016. The region-wide mass-balance rate between 2005 and 2014 was −0.94 ± 0.12 m w.e. a−1 (−3.84 ± 0.50 Gt a−1), which is almost twice as negative than found for earlier periods in previous studies indicating an acceleration in glacier mass loss in this region. Area-averaged mass changes were most negative for lake-terminating glaciers (−1.37 ± 0.13 m w.e. a−1), followed by land-terminating glaciers (−1.02 ± 0.13 m w.e. a−1) and tidewater glaciers (−0.45 ± 0.14 m w.e. a−1). Unambiguous attribution of the observed acceleration in mass loss over the last decades is hampered by the scarcity of observational data, especially at high elevation, and by large interannual variability.

We reanalyzed mass balance records at Taku and Lemon Creek Glaciers to better understand the relative roles of hypsometry, local climate and dynamics as mass balance drivers. Over the 1946–2018 period, the cumulative mass balances diverged. Tidewater Taku Glacier advanced and gained mass at an average rate of +0.25 ± 0.28 m w.e. a–1, contrasting with retreat and mass loss of −0.60 ± 0.15 m w.e. a−1 at land-terminating Lemon Creek Glacier. The uniform influence of regional climate is demonstrated by strong correlations among annual mass balance and climate data. Regional warming trends forced similar statistically significant decreases in surface mass balance after 1989: −0.83 m w.e. a–1 at Taku Glacier and −0.81 m w.e. a–1 at Lemon Creek Glacier. Divergence in cumulative mass balance arises from differences in glacier hypsometry and local climate. Since 2013 negative mass balance and glacier-wide thinning prevailed at Taku Glacier. These changes initiated terminus retreat, which could increase dramatically if calving begins. The future mass balance trajectory of Taku Glacier hinges on dynamics, likely ending the historic dichotomy between these glaciers.

This study evaluates the attitudes of slaveholders towards slavery in Maryland’s Tidewater region during the Early Republic, through the examination of their claims for slave property lost in the W...

We present the first fully coupled 3D full-Stokes model of a tidewater glacier, incorporating ice flow, subglacial hydrology, plume-induced frontal melting and calving. We apply the model to Store Glacier (Sermeq Kujalleq) in west Greenland to simulate a year of high melt (2012) and one of low melt (2017). In terms of modelled hydrology, we find perennial channels extending 5 km inland from the terminus and up to 41 and 29 km inland in summer 2012 and 2017, respectively. We also report a hydrodynamic feedback that suppresses channel growth under thicker ice inland and allows water to be stored in the distributed system. At the terminus, we find hydrodynamic feedbacks exert a major control on calving through their impact on velocity. We show that 2012 marked a year in which Store Glacier developed a fully channelised drainage system, unlike 2017, where it remained only partially developed. This contrast in modelled behaviour indicates that tidewater glaciers can experience a strong hydrological, as well as oceanic, control, which is consistent with observations showing glaciers switching between types of behaviour. The fully coupled nature of the model allows us to demonstrate the likely lack of any hydrological or ice-dynamic memory at Store Glacier.

White whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in Svalbard remain near the coast much of the year, spending most of their time in front of tidewater glaciers. In this article, the diving behaviour of adult male white whales in Svalbard (N = 16) is presented based on satellite-relay data loggers that record time and depth of diving as well as positions. The loggers transmitted data for an average of 87 ± 52 days (range 2–163 days). After filtering, 55 359 dives were available for the study. Most of the dives were extremely shallow (13 ± 26 m, maximum 350 m) and of short duration (97 ± 123 s, maximum 31.4 min). At tidewater glacier fronts, the white whales optimized their time at the bottom of dives and spent longer periods resting at the surface after dives, in accordance with what would be expected when foraging. This behaviour was also documented when animals were out in the fjords. When the whales moved between areas around the archipelago, they swam close to the coast, staying right below the surface most of the time, presumably to minimize energy expenditure during transits. When sea ice formed during the winter, the whales were forced offshore into somewhat deeper areas with drifting ice. In these areas, the whales minimized time at the surface and dove somewhat deeper, sometimes reaching the bottom, presumably to feed on neritic prey.

An essential climate variable to determine the tidewater glacier status is the location of the calving front position and the separation of seasonal variability from long-term trends. Previous studies have proposed deep learning-based methods to semi-automatically delineate the calving fronts of tidewater glaciers. They used U-Net to segment the ice and non-ice regions and extracted the calving fronts in a post-processing step. In this work, we show a method to segment the glacier calving fronts from SAR images in an end-to-end fashion using Attention U-Net. The main objective is to investigate the attention mechanism in this application. Adding attention modules to the state-of-the-art U - N et network lets us analyze the learning process by extracting its attention maps. We use these maps as a tool to search for proper hyperparameters and loss functions in order to generate higher qualitative results. Our proposed attention U-Net performs comparably to the standard U-Net while providing additional insight into those regions on which the network learned to focus more. In the best case, the attention U-Net achieves a 1.5 % better Dice score compared to the canonical U-Net with a glacier front line prediction certainty of up to 237.12 meters.

Tunabreen is a 26-km long tidewater glacier. It is the most frequently surging glacier in Svalbard, with four documented surges in the past hundred years. We have modelled the evolution of this glacier with a Minimal Glacier Model (MGM), in which ice mechanics, calving and surging are parameterized. The model geometry consists of a flow band to which three tributaries supply mass. The calving rate is set to the mean observed value for the period 2012–2019, and kept constant. For the past 120 years, a smooth Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) history is reconstructed by finding the best possible match between observed and simulated glacier length. There is a modest correlation between this ELA history and meteorological observations from Longyearbyen. The simulated glacier retreat is in good agreement with observations. Runs with and without surging show that the effect of surging on the long term glacier evolution is limited. Due to the low surface slope and associated strong height -mass balance feedback, Tunabreen is very sensitive to changes in ELA. For a constant future ELA equal to the reconstructed value for 2020, the glacier front will retreat by 8 km during the coming hundred years. For an increase of the ELA of 2 m per year, the retreat is projected to be 13 km and Tunabreen becomes a land-based glacier around 2100. The calving rate is an important parameter: increasing its value by 50 % has about the same effect as a 50 m increase in the ELA, the corresponding equilibrium glacier length being 18 km (as compared to 25.8 km in the reference state). Response times vary from 150 to 400 years, depending on the forcing and on the state of the glacier (tidewater or land-based).

A comparative analysis of artifacts recovered from three plantation quarter sites in Tidewater Virginia indicates that enslaved households varied with respect to their labor patterns and household economies. An approach which positions these households within the broader context of slavery illuminates how different labor demands on a smaller, urban versus large rural plantations resulted in household variability. Moreover, a gendered analysis of labor reveals how enslaved women’s work challenges the universality of the private/public dichotomy.

This work investigates the dynamics of the ice front retreat of two tidewater glaciers in adjacent valleys, Drummond and Widdowson (66°43'S, 65°46'W), on the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsul...

The calving fronts of many tidewater glaciers in Greenland have been undergoing strong seasonal and interannual fluctuations. Conventionally, calving front positions have been manually delineated from remote sensing images. But manual practices can be labor-intensive and time-consuming, particularly when processing a large number of images taken over decades and covering large areas with many glaciers, such as Greenland. Applying U-Net, a deep learning architecture, to multitemporal synthetic aperture radar images taken by the TerraSAR-X satellite, we here automatically delineate the calving front positions of Jakobshavn Isbræ from 2009 to 2015. Our results are consistent with the manually delineated products generated by the Greenland Ice Sheet Climate Change Initiative project. We show that the calving fronts of Jakobshavn's two main branches retreated at mean rates of -117±1 and -157±1 m yr−1, respectively, during the years 2009 to 2015. The interannual calving front variations can be roughly divided into three phases for both branches. The retreat rates of the two branches tripled and doubled, respectively, from phase 1 (April 2009–January 2011) to phase 2 (January 2011–January 2013) and then stabilized to nearly zero in phase 3 (January 2013–December 2015). We suggest that the retreat of the calving front into an overdeepened basin whose bed is retrograde may have accelerated the retreat after 2011, while the inland–uphill bed slope behind the bottom of the overdeepened basin has prevented the glacier from retreating further after 2012. Demonstrating through this successful case study on Jakobshavn Isbræ and due to the transferable nature of deep learning, our methodology can be applied to many other tidewater glaciers both in Greenland and elsewhere in the world, using multitemporal and multisensor remote sensing imagery.

ANM is supported by a University of Edinburgh Principal’s Career Development PhD Scholarship. We acknowledge NERC grants NE/K015249/1 (to PWN) and NE/K014609/1 (to AJS) and DLR projects XTI_GLAC0296 and LAN1534 (to NG). Time-lapse imagery was acquired under NSF grant PLR-0909552 (to MT and MF). PROMICE and DMI data are available at http://www.promice.dk and http://www.dmi.dk, respectively. ArcticDEM was created from DigitalGlobe Inc. imagery, funded under NSF awards 1043681, 1559691, and 1542736. Submarine melting of tidewater glaciers is proposed as a trigger for their recent thinning, acceleration and retreat. We estimate spring submarine melt rates (SMRs) of Kangiata Nunaata Sermia in southwest Greenland, from 2012 to 2014, by examining changes in along-fjord freeboard and velocity of the seasonal floating ice tongue. Estimated SMRs vary spatially and temporally near the grounding line, with mean rates of 1.3 ± 0.6, 0.8 ± 0.3 and 1.0 ± 0.4 m d−1 across the tongue in 2012, 2013 and 2014, respectively. Higher melt rates correspond with locations of emerging subglacial plumes and terminus calving activity observed during the melt season using time-lapse camera imagery. Modelling of subglacial flow paths suggests a dynamic system capable of rapid re-routing of subglacial discharge both within and between melt seasons. Our results provide an empirically-derived link between the presence of subglacial discharge plumes and areas of high spring submarine melting and calving along glacier termini. Publisher PDF

Tidewater glaciers in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard, are retreating, and it is expected that they will terminate on land at some time in the future. Plumes, the submerged runoff emerging at the bases of tidewater glacier fronts, contribute to large-scale circulation within the inner fjord. A transition to a fjord with only land-terminating glaciers will affect the fjord circulation, with further implications for the biogeochemistry and ecosystem in Kongsfjorden. In this paper we compare the present and predicted future circulation using the ocean model system ROMS, and identify and quantify changes resulting from the altered forcing. Removal of subglacial discharge due to retreating tidewater glaciers causes substantial reduction of subsurface volume fluxes, and hence exchange rates, in the inner part of the fjord, and results in enhanced stratification during summer months. The increase in fjord extent due to tidewater glacier retreat results in a slight increase in tidal velocities, in particular overtide components, but this effect is not strong enough to compensate for the reduction in current velocities due to removal of freshwater plumes at glacier fronts. The freshwater content (practical salinity 34.8 ) in the fjord during the melting season is predicted to increase in the future, primarily due to enhanced retention of freshwater in the inner parts of the fjord. However, freshwater in the future will mostly be confined to a relatively thin surface layer whereas at present freshwater is found in a thicker layer, in particular in the proximity of the tidewater glacier fronts.

Fishes of California coastal streams and associated coastal lagoons have adapted to the Mediterranean-style rainfall cycle. Winter rains open the lagoons to the ocean; subsequent lack of rain and seasonal changes in beach dynamics typically closes them for much of the year. Dry and wet season artificial breaching or opening of barrier sand berms has been suspected to disrupt fish populations and lead to mortality of many aquatic organisms including federally endangered species. Such breaches have been rarely observed and then only after at least a few days or more have passed. Artificial breachings of three lagoons have been observed during or within a few hours after breaching and provide documentation of extensive disruption and mortality of aquatic organisms. These observations, Aliso Creek, Orange County (1975), Santa Clara River, Ventura County (2010), and Corcoran Lagoon, Santa Cruz County (2014-2015), confirmed many changes and effects of these events, including mortality of the federally endangered northern and southern tidewater gobies and southern steelhead. Despite the many ostensibly beneficial and non-faunal related reasons for breaching, our observations confirm such actions can cause considerable mortality of threatened and endangered species and are probably more severe than natural wet season breachings. Many city, county, as well as state and federal laws provide regulation of lagoon breaching to protect habitat and minimize or mitigate for impact to sensitive species and these need to be maintained and strengthened.

Ice fluxes across the grounding zone affect global ice-sheet mass loss and sea level rise. Although recent changes in ice fluxes are well constrained by remote sensing, future projections remain uncertain, because key environments affecting ice-sheet dynamics – the ice-sheet bed and grounding zone – are largely unknown. Here, we used a remotely operated vehicle to explore the grounding zone of a Weddell Sea tidewater ice cliff. At 148 m we found a 0.3–0.5 m gap between the ice and the seafloor and a 0.4 m clear facies of debris- and bubble-free basal ice, suggesting freeze-on of meltwater in the distal marine portion of the ice sheet over the last 400 yr. Ploughmarks and low epifauna cover reveal recent grounding line retreat, as corroborated by satellite remote sensing. We found dense algal tufts on the ice cliff and high phytoplankton pigment concentrations, suggesting high productivity fuelled by nutrients from ice melt. As grounded tidewater ice cliffs rim 38% of the Antarctic continent, sinking and downwelling of organic matter along with low benthic turnover may contribute to enhanced carbon sequestration, providing a potentially important feedback to climate. Direct observations at the grounding zone of a tidewater glacier ice cliff in the Weddell Sea, obtained by remotely operated vehicle, reveal evidence for a freeze-on of meltwater above the seafloor, grounding line retreat and high productivity.

Archival maps are an invaluable source of information on the state of glaciers in polar zones and are very often basic research material for analysing changes in their geometry. However, basing a reliable comparative analysis on them requires they be standardised and precisely matched against modern-day cartographic materials. This can be achieved effectively using techniques and tools from the field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The research objective was to accurately register archival topographic maps of the area surrounding the Hornsund fjord (southern Spitsbergen) published by the Polish Academy of Sciences, and to evaluate their potential for use in studying changes in the geometry of glaciers in the western part of the Sørkapp Land peninsula in 1961–90. Comparing the 1961 and 1990 data, glacier surfaces lowered by about 80–85 m for the largest land-terminating glaciers of the peninsula, and by up to more than 90 m for tidewater glaciers (above the line marking their 1984 extents). The dataset is now available from the Zenodo web portal: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4573130 (Dudek and Pętlicki, 2021).

Tidewater glaciers calve icebergs into the marine environment which serve as pupping, molting, and resting habitat for some of the largest seasonal aggregations of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) in the world. Although they are naturally dynamic, advancing and retreating in response to local climatic and fjord conditions, most tidewater glaciers around the world are thinning and retreating. Climate change models predict continued loss of land-based ice with unknown impacts to organisms such as harbor seals that rely on glacier ice as habitat for critical life history events. To understand the impacts of changing ice availability on harbor seals, we quantified seasonal and annual changes in ice habitat in Johns Hopkins Inlet, a tidewater glacier fjord in Glacier Bay National Park in southeastern Alaska. We conducted systematic aerial photographic surveys (n = 55) of seals and ice during the pupping (June; n = 30) and molting (August; n = 25) periods from 2007 to 2014. Object-based image analysis was used to quantify the availability and spatial distribution of floating ice in the fjord. Multivariate spatial models were developed for jointly modeling stage-structured seal location data and ice habitat. Across all years, there was consistently more ice in the fjord during the pupping season in June than during the molting season in August, which was likely driven by seasonal variation in physical processes that influence the calving dynamics of tidewater glaciers. Non-pup harbor seals and ice were correlated during the pupping season, but this correlation was reduced during the molting season suggesting that harbor seals may respond to changes in habitat differently depending upon trade-offs associated with life history events, such as pupping and molting, and energetic costs and constraints associated with the events.

Charlie Bunce is supported by a NERC DTP studentship (NE/L002558/1). Ben Davison is funded by the Scottish Alliance for Geoscience, Environment and Society (SAGES) and University of St. Andrews. We acknowledge field and research grants from the RGS-IBG postgraduate research fund and Mackay/Weir Greenland Fund (University of Edinburgh) awarded to Charlie Bunce and RGS-IBG postgraduate research fund, Mackay/Weir Greenland Fund (University of Edinburgh) and Centenary Funding (University of Edinburgh) awarded to Alexis Moyer (University of Edinburgh). Frontal ablation from tidewater glaciers is a major component of the total mass loss from the Greenland ice sheet. It remains unclear, however, how changes in atmospheric and oceanic temperatures translate into changes in frontal ablation, in part due to sparse observations at sufficiently high spatial and temporal resolution. We present high-frequency time-lapse imagery (photos every 30 min) of iceberg calving and meltwater plumes at Kangiata Nunaata Sermia (KNS), southwest Greenland, during June–October 2017, alongside satellite-derived ice velocities and modelled subglacial discharge. Early in the melt season, we infer a subglacial hydrological network with multiple outlets that would theoretically distribute discharge and enhance undercutting by submarine melt, an inference supported by our observations of terminus-wide calving during this period. During the melt season, we infer hydraulic evolution to a relatively more channelised subglacial drainage configuration, based on meltwater plume visibility indicating focused emergence of subglacial water; these observations coincide with a reduction in terminus-wide calving and transition to an incised planform terminus geometry. We suggest that temporal variations in subglacial discharge and near-terminus subglacial hydraulic efficiency exert considerable influence on calving and frontal ablation at KNS. Publisher PDF

Between 2000 and 2010, glaciers on Greenland’s east coast were shown to have distinct contrasts in patterns and rates of ice front retreat north and south of 69°N latitude. The correspondence of this transition zone with the northern limit of subtropical waters carried by the Irminger Current has led to the hypothesis that variability in coastal heat transport is the dominant mechanisms causing this regional difference (e.g. Seale et al. 2011). However, whether these regional differences exist for recent glacier change is unknown. Here we examine seasonal and interannual variability in Landsat-8 derived ice-front positions with respect to atmospheric and oceanic forcings for 24 east Greenland outlet glaciers between 2013 and 2017. We find that all glaciers exhibit seasonal advance and retreat cycles proportional to glacier width and velocity, though there is a distinct difference between the interannual trends of glacier termini north and south of 69oN throughout our study period. Glaciers above this latitude showed either limited or gradual terminus change over time that was mostly linear on annual timescales. This contrasts with glaciers south of 69°N where step-wise retreat was observed between 2016 and 2017, following a period of relative stability between 2013 and 2016. We find that retreat south of 69°N during 2016 was coincident with periods of anomalously warm atmospheric and subsurface oceanic temperatures, and a marked decline in sea ice/mélange. Warm atmospheric conditions were also experienced north of 69°N, though subsurface oceanic temperature increases and changes in mélange cover were not as marked. Our work supports the hypothesis that differences in the terminus response of glaciers either side of 69°N can be explained by contrasting oceanic forcing regimes above and below this latitude. References: Seale, A., Christoffersen, P., Mugford, R. I. and O’Leary, M. (2011) Ocean forcing of the Greenland Ice Sheet: Calving fronts and patterns of retreat identified by automatic satellite monitoring of eastern outlet glaciers. Journal of Geophysical Research Letters, 116, doi: 10.1029/2010JF001847.

The Greenland Ice Sheet is losing mass at increasing rates. Substantial amounts of this mass loss occur by ice discharge. The ice sheet is surrounded by thousands of peripheral glaciers, which are dynamically decoupled from the ice sheet, and which account for ~10 % of the global glacier ice volume outside the two main ice sheets. Rather low-lying along the coasts, these peripheral glaciers are also losing mass at increasing, but disputed, rates. The total absence of knowledge about the role and share of solid ice discharge in this mass loss adds to the controversy. Since the quantification of ice discharge is still pending, a full understanding of ice mass loss processes in this globally important glacier region is substantially hampered.Here, we present the first estimation of ice discharge from Greenland's peripheral tidewater glaciers. For each of these 760 glaciers, we combine an idealized rectangular flux gate cross sections derived from modelling with the Open Global Glacier Model with surface ice flow velocities derived from the ITS_LIVE and MEaSUREs remote sensing datasets to calculate glacier specific ice discharge on both annual and multi-annual time scales over the period 1985 to 2018. For the few glaciers not covered by either of the employed original datasets or modelling methods we use a regression tree-based extrapolation scheme to estimate the necessary input data for our calculation.Our findings indicate a significant overall increase of ice discharge over the study period although several individual glaciers show contrasting developments. This increase became especially apparent across the southern parts of Greenland. Our results also show that the total of the ice discharge from Greenland's peripheral tidewater glaciers is dominated by few major contributors and that this dominance is completely time-independent.

The Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) is vulnerable to climate warming, and with over 300 tidewater glaciers, is a hotspot for enhanced glacial retreat and meltwater runoff to the ocean. In contras...

Superimposed on ancient landscape elements, the Inverness region includes a palimpsest of subglacial landforms formed during successive Late Devensian ice movements. It contains a particularly rich and diverse set of sediments and landforms created close to retreating glacier margins, together with the legacy of a major oscillating tidewater outlet glacier. At least five phases of glaciation have been recognised, although they remain poorly constrained temporally. The region includes well-documented buried glacial rafts of arctic shelly clay, two internationally important localities where organic deposits pre-date the last ice sheet, and a good geomorphological record of Late Devensian and Holocene relative sea-level change.

Scientific studies of global warming, climate change, glacier melting, and salmon protection conducted by international researchers are reviewed, presented, and discussed. The topics covered in this book chapter include technical terminologies, climate change, global warming, greenhouse gases, global warming potential, rising temperature trend in the environment, glacier melting, glacier protection, tidewater glaciers, Glacier Bay National Park and Reserve, Mendenhall Glacier, Mendenhall Lake, salmon protection, salmon life cycle, fire frequency, carbon dioxide stabilization, actions for environmental protection, and Macaulay Salmon Hatchery, Alaska, USA.

Vertical mixing of upper water masses in Arctic fjords is important for circulation and transport of nutrients and heat. However, the distribution of turbulent mixing is poorly known. Here we present hydrographic and microscale turbulence measurements from six fjords in Northwestern (69°N–75°N) Greenland. Water mass distributions showed the presence of warm bottom water of Atlantic origin in all fjord transects and a significant modification of upper water masses in fjords with tidewater outlet glaciers. Spatial and temporal distribution of turbulence in the fjordsshowed, in general, low rates of turbulent kinetic energy, ε (∼10 −9 W kg−1), and strong stratification implies that vertical exchange in the upper ∼200 m was relatively weak. However, measurements within 2 km of the terminus of a tidewater outlet glaciershowed values of ε and inferred turbulent diffusion coefficients >10 −4 m2 s−1 that were about two orders of magnitude larger than elsewhere in the deep fjords. This elevated mixing corresponded to comparatively large heat and salt fluxes. These observations suggest that vertical mixing near tidewater outlet glaciers results in localized mixing hot spots, likely due to subglacial discharge and near-glacial current shear, that contribute significantly to vertical exchange in the deep fjords.

Glaciers are important regulators of water availability in many regions of the world and their retreat can lead to increased geohazards. Glacier melt has contributed significantly to sea-level rise in the past and has become the biggest single source of observed sea-level rise since 1900, even if the ice mass stored in glaciers is small compared to the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets (

By regulating the amount, the timing, and the location of meltwater supply to the glacier bed, supraglacial hydrology potentially exerts a major control on the evolution of the subglacial drainage system, which in turn modulates ice velocity. Yet the configuration of the supraglacial hydrological system has received only little attention in numerical models of subglacial hydrology so far. Here we apply the two-dimensional subglacial hydrology model GlaDS (Glacier Drainage System model) to a Svalbard glacier basin with the aim of investigating how the spatial distribution of meltwater recharge affects the characteristics of the basal drainage system. We design four experiments with various degrees of complexity in the way that meltwater is delivered to the subglacial drainage model. Our results show significant differences between experiments in the early summer transition from distributed to channelized drainage, with discrete recharge at moulins favouring channelization at higher elevations and driving overall lower water pressures. Otherwise, we find that water input configuration only poorly influences subglacial hydrology, which instead is controlled primarily by subglacial topography. All experiments fail to develop channels of sufficient efficiency to substantially reduce summertime water pressures, which we attribute to small surface gradients and short melt seasons. The findings of our study are potentially applicable to most Svalbard tidewater glaciers with similar topography and low meltwater recharge. The absence of efficient channelization implies that the dynamics of tidewater glaciers in the Svalbard archipelago may be sensitive to future long-term trends in meltwater supply.

Negribreen, a tidewater glacier located in central eastern Svalbard, began actively surging after it experienced an initial collapse in summer 2016. The surge resulted in horizontal surface velocities of more than 25 m d−1, making it one of the fastest-flowing glaciers in the archipelago. The last surge of Negribreen likely occurred in the 1930s, but due to a long quiescent phase, investigations of this glacier have been limited. As Negribreen is part of the Negribreen Glacier System, one of the largest glacier systems in Svalbard, investigating its current surge event provides important information on surge behaviour among tidewater glaciers within the region. Here, we demonstrate the surge development and discuss triggering mechanisms using time series of digital elevation models (1969–2018), surface velocities (1995–2018), crevasse patterns and glacier extents from various data sources. We find that the active surge results from a four-stage process. Stage 1 (quiescent phase) involves a long-term, gradual geometry change due to high subglacial friction towards the terminus. These changes allow the onset of Stage 2, an accelerating frontal destabilization, which ultimately results in the collapse (Stage 3) and active surge (Stage 4).

The ice covered portions of the world’s seas and oceans are some of the most inaccessible areas on the planet, yet hold crucial clues to the behaviour of the world’s climate. Largely inaccessible by manned vessels, robotic platforms provide our best opportunities to explore and learn about these regions. Autosub2000 Under Ice (Autosub2KUI) will become the newest iteration of the Autosub family of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles which have played a significant role in under ice exploration over the last two decades. Autosub AUVs have conducted over 30 missions under sea ice and tidewater glaciers in both the Arctic and Antarctic. This paper outlines the design of Autosub2KUI with a focus on the adaptations required for operation under ice.

Freshwater discharge from tidewater glaciers modulates fjord circulation and impacts fjord ecosystems. There can be significant delays between meltwater production at the glacier surface, and discharge into the fjord. Here, we present a hydrological analysis of the tidewater glaciers around Kongsfjorden, northwest of Svalbard, examining the pathways of glacier surface melt to the glacier fronts. To simulate discharge hydrographs at the outlets of the major drainage basins in the Kongsfjord area we use 1) a simple, heuristic routing model and 2) the physically-based model HydroFlow to route runoff derived from a coupled surface energy balance – snow model. Plume observations at one of the tidewater glacier outlets and measurements of proglacial discharge of a land-terminating glacier are used for model calibration. Our analysis suggests that the local subglacial topography diverts a substantial amount of water from the drainage area of the glacier Kongsbreen to the neighboring glacier Kronebreen, across the border of their surface catchments. This is supported by the relative sizes of the plumes observed at the respective glacier fronts. Runoff from the glaciers on the south side of the fjord is one order magnitude lower than runoff from the glaciers on the east and north sides of the fjord, reflecting differences in the size of the glaciers. We derive discharge hydrographs at all the major outlets of Kongsfjord basin, presenting here a detailed analysis of two of the glacierized basins. The average annual discharge period from the tidewater glaciers due to surface runoff was 105 ± 10 days. The largest discharge comes from Kronebreen, which is equivalent to around 40 % of the total freshwater flux to the fjord.

B.J.D was funded in the form of a PhD studentship provided by the Scottish Association for Geosciences, Environment and Society (SAGES) and the University of St Andrews, UK. J.M.L is supported by a UKRI Future Leaders Fellowship (Grant No. MR/S017232/1). D.F would like to acknowledge the support of this work through the EPSRC and ESRC Centre for Doctoral Training on Quantification and Management of Risk and Uncertainty in Complex Systems Environments Grant No. (EP/L015927/1). Surface‐derived meltwater can access the bed of the Greenland Ice Sheet, causing seasonal velocity variations. The magnitude, timing and net impact on annual average ice flow of these seasonal perturbations depends on the hydraulic efficiency of the subglacial drainage system. We examine the relationships between drainage system efficiency and ice velocity, at three contrasting tidewater glaciers in southwest Greenland during 2014‐2019, using high‐resolution remotely sensed ice velocities, modelled surface melting, subglacial discharge at the terminus and results from buoyant plume modelling. All glaciers underwent a seasonal speed‐up, which usually coincided with surface melt‐onset, and subsequent slow‐down, which usually followed inferred subglacial channelisation. The amplitude and timing of these speed variations differed between glaciers, with the speed‐up being larger and more prolonged at our fastest study glacier. At all glaciers, however, the seasonal variations in ice flow are consistent with inferred changes in hydraulic efficiency of the subglacial drainage system, and qualitatively indicative of a flow regime in which annually‐averaged ice velocity is relatively insensitive to inter‐annual variations in meltwater supply – so‐called ‘ice flow self‐regulation’. These findings suggest that subglacial channel formation may exert a strong control on seasonal ice flow variations, even at fast‐flowing tidewater glaciers. Publisher PDF

In the field of iceberg and glacier calving studies, it is important to collect comprehensive datasets of populations of icebergs. Particularly, calving of lake-terminating glaciers has been understudied. The aim of this work is to present an object-based method of iceberg detection and to create an inventory of icebergs located in a proglacial lagoon of San Quintín glacier, Northern Patagonia Icefield, Chile. This dataset is created using high-resolution WorldView-2 imagery and a derived DEM. We use it to briefly discuss the iceberg size distribution and area–volume scaling. Segmentation of the multispectral imagery produced a map of objects, which were classified with use of Random Forest supervised classification algorithm. An intermediate classification product was corrected with a ruleset exploiting contextual information and a watershed algorithm that was used to divide multiple touching icebergs into separate objects. Common theoretical heavy-tail statistical distributions were tested as descriptors of iceberg area and volume distributions. Power law models were proposed for the area–volume relationship. The proposed method performed well over the open lake detecting correctly icebergs in all size bands except 5–15 m2 where many icebergs were missed. A section of the lagoon with ice melange was not reliably mapped due to uniformity of the area in the imagery and DEM. The precision of the DEM limited the scaling effort to icebergs taller than 1.7 m and larger than 99 m2, despite the inventory containing icebergs as small as 4 m2. The work demonstrates viability of object-based analysis for lacustrine iceberg detection and shows that the statistical properties of iceberg population at San Quintín glacier match those of populations produced by tidewater glaciers.

Retreat of calving glaciers worldwide has contributed substantially to sea-level rise in recent decades. Mass loss by calving contributes significantly to the uncertainty of sea-level rise projections. At Bowdoin Glacier, Northwest Greenland, most calving occurs by a few large events resulting from kilometre-scale fractures forming parallel to the calving front. High-resolution terrestrial radar interferometry data of such an event reveal that crevasse opening is fastest at low tide and accelerates during the final 36 h before calving. Using the ice flow model Elmer/Ice, we identify the crevasse water level as a key driver of modelled opening rates. Sea water-level variations in the range of local tidal amplitude (1 m) can reproduce observed opening rate fluctuations, provided crevasse water level is at least 4 m above the low-tide sea level. The accelerated opening rates within the final 36 h before calving can be modelled by additional meltwater input into the crevasse, enhanced ice cliff undercutting by submarine melt, ice damage increase due to tidal cyclic fatigue, crevasse deepening or a combination of these processes. Our results highlight the influence of surface meltwater and tides on crevasse opening leading to major calving events at grounded tidewater glaciers such as Bowdoin., Journal of Glaciology, 66 (255), ISSN:0022-1430, ISSN:1727-5652

In this study, 110 tidewater glaciers from Spitsbergen were studied to characterize the frontal zone using morphometric indicators. In addition, their time variability was also determined based on features of the active phase of glacier surges. Landsat satellite imagery and topographic maps were used for digitalization of the ice-cliffs line. In recent years (2014&ndash, 2017) all the glaciers studied can be thus classified as: stagnant (33%), retreating and deeply recessing (33%), starting to move forward/fulfilling the frontal zone (23%), and surging (11%). Indicators of the glacier frontal zone (CfD and CfE) allow to identify the beginning and the end of the active phase through changes in their values by ca. 0.05&ndash, 0.06 by the year and get even bigger for large glaciers as opposed to typical interannual differences within the limits of &plusmn, 0.01 to 0.02. The active phase lasted an average of 6&ndash, 10 years. The presence of a &ldquo, glacier buttress system&rdquo, and the &ldquo, pointed arch&rdquo, structure of the ice-cliff seem to be an important factor regulating the tidewater glacier stability.

Fjord dynamics influence oceanic heat flux to the Greenland ice sheet. Submarine iceberg melting releases large volumes of freshwater within Greenland’s fjords, yet its impact on fjord dynamics remains unclear. We modify an ocean model to simulate submarine iceberg melting in Sermilik Fjord, east Greenland. Here we find that submarine iceberg melting cools and freshens the fjord by up to ~5 °C and 0.7 psu in the upper 100-200 m. The release of freshwater from icebergs drives an overturning circulation, resulting in a ~10% increase in net up-fjord heat flux. In addition, we find that submarine iceberg melting accounts for over 95% of heat used for ice melt in Sermilik Fjord. Our results highlight the substantial impact that icebergs have on the dynamics of a major Greenlandic fjord, demonstrating the importance of including related processes in studies that seek to quantify interactions between the ice sheet and the ocean., Iceberg melting releases large volumes of freshwater in fjords, yet the impact on oceanic heat delivery to tidewater glaciers is unknown. Here the authors show that iceberg melting invigorates fjord circulation in a large, iceberg-congested fjord, thereby increasing oceanic heat delivery to its tidewater glaciers.

Changes in glacier facies (glacier zones), such as firn or superimposed ice (SI), are good indicators of glacier response to climate change. They are especially important for fast-warming Svalbard, where only a few glaciers are under glaciological mass balance monitoring. This paper presents a first study of changes of glacier facies extent for three tidewater glaciers located in southern Spitsbergen (Svalbard) and it is based on both satellite remote sensing and terrestrial data analysis, covering two time spans: 2007–2017 for Hansbreen and 2012–2017 for Storbreen and Hornbreen. Satellite remote sensing analysis include unsupervised classification of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data from both decommissioned (ENVISAT ASAR) and modern satellite missions (RADARSAT-2, Sentinel-1). The results of the SAR classification are compared to the information on glacier zones retrieved from terrestrial data, i.e. shallow cores and visual interpretation of 800 MHz Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) profiles. In addition, a novel application of the Internal Reflection Power (IRP) coefficient as an objective method of distinguishing glacier zones based on GPR data is discussed. Changes in glacier facies areas over time are analysed, as well as their correlation to Hansbreen's mass balance. The main finding of the study is that firn and SI of Hansbreen, Storbreen and Hornbreen significantly decreased over the study period. For example, due to continuous negative mass balance between 2010 and 2017, the contribution of firn area to Hansbreen's total area decreased ca. 14% (cumulative firn area loss during that time: ~45%) whereas since 2012 SI has not been distinguished as a vast area on this glacier. In addition, an east–west gradient of firn area loss was observed as a result of differences in local climate conditions. Therefore, for the common time span (i.e. 2012–2017) Hansbreen recorded a ca. 12% loss of firn contribution to glacier area whereas Hornbreen recorded ca. 9%. Finally, application of the IRP coefficient as an objective method of glacier zones discrimination by GPR data gave very good results, so the method is recommended for future analysis of glacier zones instead, or as a support, to popular visual interpretation of the GPR profiles.

The Svalbard archipelago, with its partially closed waters influenced by both oceanic conditions and large tidal glaciers, represents a prime target for understanding the effects of ongoing climate change on glaciers, oceans, and ecosystems. An understanding of the role played by tidewater glaciers in marine primary production is still affected by a lack of data from close proximity to glacier fronts, to which, for safety reasons, manned surface vessels cannot get too close. In this context, autonomous marine vehicles can play a key role in collecting high quality data in dangerous interface areas. In particular, the contribution given by light, portable, and modular marine robots is discussed in this paper. The state-of-the-art of technology and of operating procedures is established on the basis of the experience gained in campaigns carried out by Italian National Research Council (CNR) robotic researchers in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard Islands, in 2015, 2017, and 2018 respectively. The aim was to demonstrate the capability of an Unmanned Semi-Submersible Vehicle (USSV): (i) To collect water samples in contact with the front of a tidewater glacier; (ii) to work in cooperation with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) for sea surface and air column characterisation in the proximity of the fronts of the glaciers; and (iii) to perform, when equipped with suitable tools and instruments, repetitive sampling of water surface as well as profiling the parameters of the water and air column close to the fronts of the tidewater glaciers. The article also reports the issues encountered in navigating in the middle of bergy bits and growlers as well as the problems faced in using some sensors at high latitudes.