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The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is central to normal reproductive function. This pathway begins with the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone in systematic pulses by the hypothalamus. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is bound by receptors on gonadotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the synthesis and secretion of luteinizing hormone and, to some extent, follicle-stimulating hormone. Once stimulated by these glycoprotein hormones, the gonads begin gametogenesis and the synthesis of sex hormones. In humans, mutations of the forkhead transcription factor, FOXP3, lead to an autoimmune disorder known as immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, and enteropathy, X-linked syndrome. Mice with a mutation in the Foxp3 gene have a similar autoimmune syndrome and are infertile. To understand why FOXP3 is required for reproductive function, we are investigating the reproductive phenotype of Foxp3 mutant mice (Foxp3(sf/Y)). Although the gonadotroph cells appear to be intact in Foxp3(sf/Y) mice, luteinizing hormone beta (Lhb) and follicle-stimulating hormone beta (Fshb) expression are significantly decreased, demonstrating that these mice exhibit a hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Hypothalamic expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone is not significantly decreased in Foxp3(sf/Y) males. Treatment of Foxp3(sf/Y) males with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor agonist does not rescue expression of Lhb or Fshb. Interestingly, we do not detect Foxp3 expression in the pituitary or hypothalamus, suggesting that the infertility seen in Foxp3(sf/Y) males is a secondary effect, possibly due to loss of FOXP3 in immune cells. Pituitary expression of glycoprotein hormone alpha (Cga) and prolactin (Prl) are significantly reduced in Foxp3(sf/Y) males, whereas the precursor for adrenocorticotropic hormone, pro-opiomelanocortin (Pomc), is increased. Human patients diagnosed with IPEX often exhibit thyroiditis due to destruction of the thyroid gland by autoimmune cells. We find that Foxp3(sf/Y) mice have elevated expression of thyroid-stimulating hormone beta (Tshb), suggesting that they may suffer from thyroiditis as well. Expression of the pituitary transcription factors, Pitx1, Pitx2, Lhx3, and Egr1, is normal; however, expression of Foxl2 and Gata2 is elevated. These data are the first to demonstrate a defect at the pituitary level in the absence of FOXP3, which contributes to the infertility observed in mice with Foxp3 loss of function mutations.

To understand the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in pituitary development, a group of pituitary-specific miRNAs were identified, and Dicer1 was then conditionally knocked out using the Pitx2-Cre mouse, resulting in the loss of mature miRNAs in the anterior pituitary. The Pitx2-Cre/Dicer1 mutant mice demonstrate growth retardation, and the pituitaries are hypoplastic with an abnormal branching of the anterior lobe, revealing a role for microRNAs in pituitary development. Growth hormone, prolactin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone β-subunit expression were decreased in the Dicer1 mutant mouse, whereas proopiomelanocortin and luteinizing hormone β-subunit expression were normal in the mutant pituitary. Further analyses revealed decreased Pit-1 and increased Lef-1 expression in the mutant mouse pituitary, consistent with the repression of the Pit-1 promoter by Lef-1. Lef-1 directly targets and represses the Pit-1 promoter. miRNA-26b (miR-26b) was identified as targeting Lef-1 expression, and miR-26b represses Lef-1 in pituitary and non-pituitary cell lines. Furthermore, miR-26b up-regulates Pit-1 and growth hormone expression by attenuating Lef-1 expression in GH3 cells. This study demonstrates that microRNAs are critical for anterior pituitary development and that miR-26b regulates Pit-1 expression by inhibiting Lef-1 expression and may promote Pit-1 lineage differentiation during pituitary development.

Although cells of the immune system can produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), the significance of that remains unclear. Using 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE), we show that mouse bone marrow (BM) cells produce a novel in-frame TSHbeta splice variant generated from a portion of intron 4 with all of the coding region of exon 5, but none of exon 4. The TSHbeta splice variant gene was expressed at low levels in the pituitary, but at high levels in the BM and the thyroid, and the protein was secreted from transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Immunoprecipitation identified an 8 kDa product in lysates of CHO cells transfected with the novel TSHbeta construct, and a 17 kDa product in lysates of CHO cells transfected with the native TSHbeta construct. The splice variant TSHbeta protein elicited a cAMP response from FRTL-5 thyroid follicular cells and a mouse alveolar macrophage (AM) cell line. Expression of the TSHbeta splice variant, but not the native form of TSHbeta, was significantly upregulated in the thyroid during systemic virus infection. These studies characterize the first functional splice variant of TSHbeta, which may contribute to the metabolic regulation during immunological stress, and may offer a new perspective for understanding autoimmune thyroiditis.

The small intestine has been shown to be an extra-pituitary site of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) production, and previous in vivo studies have shown that TSH synthesis localizes within areas of enteric virus infection within the small intestine; however, the cellular source of intestinal TSH has not been adequately determined. In the present study, we have used the murine MODE-K small intestinal epithelial cell line to demonstrate both at the transcriptional level and as a secreted hormone, as measured in a TSHbeta-specific enzyme-linked assay, that epithelial cells in fact respond to infection with reovirus serotype 3 Dearing strain by upregulating TSH synthesis. Moreover, sequence analysis of a PCR-amplified TSHbeta product from MODE-K cells revealed homology to mouse pituitary TSHbeta. These findings have direct functional implications for understanding a TSH immune-endocrine circuit in the small intestine., ((c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Pit-1 is a pituitary-specific POU-domain DNA binding factor, which binds to and trans-activates promoters of growth hormone- (GH), prolactin- (PRL) and thyroid stimulating hormone-beta- (TSHbeta) encoding genes. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is located in the hypothalamus and stimulates TSH, GH and PRL release from the pituitary gland. In the present study, we successfully used the cell aggregate culture system for chicken pituitary cells to study the effect of TRH administration on the ggPit-l* (chicken Pit-1), GH and TSHbeta mRNA expression in vitro. In pituitary cell aggregates of 11-day-old male broiler chicks the ggPit-l * mRNA expression was significantly increased following TRH administration, indicating that the stimulatory effects of TRH on several pituitary hormones are mediated via its effect on the ggPit-l* gene expression. Therefore, a semiquantitative RT-PCR method was used to detect possible changes in GH and TSHbeta mRNA levels. TRH affected both the GH and TSHbeta mRNA levels. The results of this in vitro study reveal that ggPit-1 * has a role in mediating the stimulatory effects of TRH on pituitary hormones like GH and TSHbeta in the chicken pituitary.

Fish pituitary plays a central role in the control of growth, development, reproduction and adaptation to the environment. Several types of hormone-secreting adenohypophyseal cells have been characterised and localised in diverse teleost species. The results suggest a similar distribution pattern among the species investigated. However, most studies deal with a single hormone or hormone family. Thus, we studied adjacent sections of the pituitary of Oreochromis niloticus, the tilapia, by conventional staining and immunohistochemistry with specific antisera directed against growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), somatolactin (SL), thyrotropin (beta-TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (beta-FSH), luteinising hormone (beta-LH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH). The pituitary was characterised by a close interdigitating neighbourhood of neurohypophysis (PN) and adenohypophysis. PRL-immunoreactive and ACTH-immunoreactive cells were detected in the rostral pars distalis. GH-immunoreactive cells were present in the proximal pars distalis (PPD). A small region of the PPD contained beta-TSH-immunoreactive cells, and beta-LH-immunoreactive cells covered approximately the remaining parts. Centrally, beta-FSH-immunoreactive cells were detected in the vicinity of the GH-containing cells. Some of these cells also displayed beta-LH immunoreactivity. The pars intermedia was characterised by branches of the PN surrounded by SL-containing and alpha-MSH-immunoreactive cells. The ACTH and alpha-MSH antisera were observed to cross-react with the respective antigens. This cross-reactivity was abolished by pre-absorption. We present a complete map of the distinct localisation sites for the classical pituitary hormones, thereby providing a solid basis for future research on teleost pituitary.

A cDNA encoding thyroid stimulating hormone beta-subunit (TSHbeta) was cloned from pituitary of the Chinese soft-shell turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, and its regulation of mRNA expression was investigated for the first time in reptile. The Chinese soft-shell turtle TSHbeta cDNA was cloned from pituitary RNA by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and rapid amplification cDNA end (RACE) methods. The Chinese soft-shell turtle TSHbeta cDNA consists of 580-bp nucleotides, including 67-bp nucleotides of 5'-untranslated region (UTR), 402-bp of the open reading frame, and 97-bp of 3'-UTR followed by a 14 poly (A) trait. It encodes a precursor protein molecule of 133 amino acids with a putative signal peptide of 19 amino acids and a putative mature protein of 114 amino acids. The number and position of 12 cysteine residues, presumably forming six disulfide bonds, one putative asparagine-linked glycosylation site, and six proline residues that are found at positions for changing the backbone direction of the protein have been conserved in the turtle as in other vertebrate groups. The deduced amino acid sequence of the Chinese soft-shell turtle TSHbeta mature protein shares identities of 82-83% with birds, 71-72% with mammals, 49-57% with amphibians, and 44-61% with fish. The Chinese soft-shell turtle pituitaries were incubated in vitro with synthetic TRH (TSH-releasing hormone), thyroxine and triiodothyronine at doses of 10(-10) and 10(-8)M. TRH stimulated, while thyroid hormones suppressed, TSHbeta mRNA levels in dose-related manner. The sequences of cDNA and its deduced peptide of TSHbeta as well as the regulation of its mRNA level were reported for the first time in reptile.

Amphibian metamorphosis represents a promising model for the identification of thyroid system-disrupting chemicals due to the pivotal role played by thyroid hormones for the initiation and regulation of metamorphosis. An important aspect of bioassay development is the identification and evaluation of sensitive and diagnostic endpoints. In this study, several morphological, histological, and molecular endpoints were evaluated for their utility to detect alterations in thyroid system function after exposure of stage 51 Xenopus laevis tadpoles to various concentrations (1.0, 2.5, 10, 25, and 50 mg/l) of the anti-thyroidal compound ethylenethiourea (ETU). Analysis of developmental stages on exposure day 20 and monitoring of time to fore limb emergence (FLE) revealed retardation and complete arrest of tadpole development at 25 mg/l and 50 mg/l ETU, respectively. Development was not affected by 1.0, 2.5, and 10 mg/l ETU. Histological alterations in the thyroid gland were observed in FLE-displaying tadpoles after exposure to 2.5, 10, and 25 mg/l ETU, as well as in developmentally arrested tadpoles exposed to 50 mg/l ETU. Prevalence and severity of histological changes increased in a concentration-dependent manner. Semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) showed increased mRNA expression of the alpha- and beta-subunits of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSHalpha, TSHbeta) in pituitary tissue of tadpoles exposed to 25 and 50 mg/l ETU. Results demonstrate the successful detection of anti-thyroidal effects of ETU in Xenopus laevis tadpoles using various endpoints and highlight the particular sensitivity of thyroid gland histology to detect thyroid system disruption in tadpoles.

We report the elk (Cervus elaphus) thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) beta-subunit cDNA cloning, nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences. The TSH beta-subunit cDNA was obtained by RT-PCR of polyadenylated pituitary RNA. The deduced elk TSH beta-subunit peptide chain shares between 93 to 99% sequence similarities with the reported TSH beta-subunit of a sub-set of related species. The TSH beta-subunit gene is expressed in the elk pituitary gland as a mature transcript of approximately 600 bases, which corresponds to the size of the mRNA expressed in the sheep pituitary gland. Seasonal expression of the pituitary gonadotropin genes was investigated by Northern blot analyses. Samples of elk pituitary glands collected during the breeding season showed elevated steady state levels of common alpha-subunit and FSH and LH beta-subunit gene expression, consistent with the seasonal reproductive cycling of this species. Samples collected before the breeding season demonstrated decreased expression of the gonadotropin genes. TSH, which is not directly tied to reproduction, had similar levels of expression, regardless of the animal's reproductive status.

In previous studies, the distribution of thyrotropes in the chicken pituitary gland has been analyzed by immunohistochemistry using heterologous antibodies. In this study, we examined the distribution of thyroid-stimulating hormone beta subunit-immunopositive (TSHbeta-ip) cells and the expression of TSHbeta mRNA in the pituitary glands of chicken embryos by immunohistochemistry using a specific antiserum to the chicken TSHbeta, in situ hybridization and RT-PCR. Immunohistochemical and morphometric analyses revealed that the TSHbeta-ip cells first appeared on embryonic day 10 (E10) in the pituitary gland and were mainly distributed in the cephalic lobe and that the cell density on E20 was almost 4 times greater than that on E10. The chicken TSHbeta-ip cells could be classified into two types based on morphological characteristics: round-shaped cells and club-shaped cells, which have long cytoplasmic processes. In situ hybridization analysis revealed that TSHbeta mRNA-expressing cells were expressed from E9 in the cephalic lobe and that the extent of TSHbeta mRNA-expressing cells coincided with that of TSHbeta-ip cells. RT-PCR also showed that TSHbeta mRNA was expressed from E9 and that Pit-1 mRNA was expressed from E5. These results clearly demonstrated that the expression of chicken TSHbeta mRNA starts on E9, that TSHbeta-ip cells appear on E10, mainly in the cephalic lobe, and that TSHbeta-ip cells can be classified into two cell types (round- and club-shaped cells)., (Copyright 2004 S. Karger AG, Basel)