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In 2019, The EAT-Lancet Commission developed criteria to assist policymakers and health care systems worldwide in sustaining natural resources to feed a forecasted 10 billion people through the year 2050. Although American dietary habits and underlying food production practices have a disproportionately negative impact on land, greenhouse gas (GHG), and water resources, there is limited information on how this population can meet the EAT-Lancet criteria. To address this, we measured adherence to an adapted version of the EAT-Lancet diet score criteria in United States (U.S.) populations overall and across racial/ethnic subgroups (i.e., black, Latinx, and white). In addition, we assessed the benefits of adherence in terms of saved environmental resources (i.e., land, GHG, and water). By performing these objectives, we provide vital information for the development of effective intervention strategies in the U.S. with enough refinement to address the human health and environmental implications of marginalized populations. Our results demonstrate that, on average, Americans do not meet EAT-Lancet criteria overall or across racial/ethnic subgroups. Shifting dietary intakes to meet the criteria could reduce environmental degradation between 28% and 38%. Furthermore, these methods can be adapted to other nations for the development of meaningful strategies that address the food, energy, and water challenges of our time.

The food–energy–water (FEW) nexus is a focal point in research due to its impacts on ecosystem services that sustain human life. Despite this, FEW studies have not produced enough policy-r...

Effectively adapting to climate change involves overcoming social and ecological system barriers. The present study uses a three‐phase adaptation framework to propose adaptation strategies aimed at overcoming socioecological barriers of the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus. Cradle‐to‐farm‐gate land, greenhouse gas (GHG), and water impacts—that derive from food consumption in the United States—are analyzed and differentiated by major demographic groups (Black, Latinx, and White). Results indicate that the White demographic yields the highest per capita GHG (680 kg of CO2 eq⋅year−1) and water impacts (328,600 L⋅year−1) from food consumption, whereas the Black demographic yields the highest per capita land impacts (1,770 m2⋅year−1) from food consumption. Our findings suggest that obtaining data with the intention of building consensus across sociodemographic lines overcomes barriers in the understanding phase, leading to increased social receptivity for many planning and managing phase processes. Specifically, we find that identifying and developing leaders who possess the cognitive and interpersonal capacity to manage many variables and stakeholders is key to assessing and selecting adaptation options in the planning phase. We also propose using government programming to encourage environmentally friendly food purchasing behavior. Then, we discuss how our proposals could be used in adaptation feasibility and evaluation activities in the managing phase. In all, these findings facilitate the development of improved climate change adaptation and policy by satisfying the understanding phase of the climate change adaptation framework, establishing a cross‐disciplinary methodological approach to addressing socioecological problems, and providing useful FEW impact data for FEW nexus and climate change researchers.

This study aims to identify and implement appropriate techniques for a sustainability assessment, which corresponds to the optimal balance between efficiency and resilience. Strategies are discussed to fill two important gaps: (1) applicable methods for identifying and analyzing multiple variables for a “metabolic” assessment of urban systems over time; and (2) empirical data that can characterize multiple sub-components (e.g., environmental, financial, and institutional) of an urban system, especially at a refined geographic scale where data challenges are significant. With a specific focus on data integration, two methods, Fisher Information (FI) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), were chosen for this study. Data analyses were implemented in an urban university, which provides valuable opportunities for enhancing our understanding of this type of urban system and enabling data-driven studies of neighborhood sustainability. Based on the strengths and weakness of FI and DEA identified in the empirical study, it is concluded that these two methods can be valuable yet complementary for an integrated system analysis.

This chapter explains the ecosystem impairment can be remediated following sustainable development-which is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs-with a particular focus on carbon management strategies in urban ecosystems. The chapter focuses on popular energy efficiency strategies that tend to be used in urban areas, and it excludes power plant activities that generally occur outside of the urban boundary. Useful energy storage and transfer techniques must then be integrated with solar collectors in order to improve efficiency and reduce energy losses. Urban developers, workers, and dwellers are not the only groups that can employ urban carbon management strategies. The carbon effects of deforestation, for example, can be linked to the demand for agricultural products, which require cleared land and sun exposure. The chapter provides information on BAS Integration Strategies, Social Densification, and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology.

To determine if there are potential concerns related to the environmental end-of-life impacts of photovoltaic (PV) or quantum-dot display (QD) technologies, the goal of this study was to assess the magnitude of heavy metal leaching using simulated landfill methodologies from devices in an attempt to forecast the lifecycle environmental impacts of subsequent generations QD-enabled PV technologies. The underlying hypotheses are (H1) existing PV and QD thin-film technologies do not release heavy metals at concentrations exceeding RCRA or State of California regulatory limits, and (H2) the disposal of PV and QD thin-film technologies does not exceed Land Disposal Restrictions (LDR). Three task-oriented objectives were completed: (O1) Five representative PV panels and two representative thin-film displays with QD technology were obtained from commercial sources. (O2) RCRA Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) tests and California Waste Extraction Tests (WET) were conducted in addition to microwave...

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) and ENM-enabled products have emerged as potentially high-performance replacements to conventional materials and chemicals. As such, there is an urgent need to incorporate environmental and human health objectives into ENM selection and design processes. Here, an adapted framework based on the Ashby material selection strategy is presented as an enhanced selection and design process, which includes functional performance as well as environmental and human health considerations. The utility of this framework is demonstrated through two case studies, the design and selection of antimicrobial substances and conductive polymers, including ENMs, ENM-enabled products and their alternatives. Further, these case studies consider both the comparative efficacy and impacts at two scales: (i) a broad scale, where chemical/material classes are readily compared for primary decision-making, and (ii) within a chemical/material class, where physicochemical properties are manipulated to tailor the desired performance and environmental impact profile. Development and implementation of this framework can inform decision-making for the implementation of ENMs to facilitate promising applications and prevent unintended consequences.

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) used as fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators will involve direct application of large quantities of ENMs to the environment and products intended for human consumption. Assessing their life cycle environmental impacts to mitigate unintended consequences poses several challenges. In this perspective, we identify obstacles to the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) for evaluating environmental tradeoffs of nano-enabled agrochemical applications. These include: (1) defining functional units that represent the function provided by nano-enabled agrochemicals and that are proportional to the scale of the study (nano-scale vs. field scale), (2) limitations in availability of comprehensive data necessary to inform life cycle material flow (resource use and emissions) for inventory development specific to nano-enabled agrochemical applications,(3) human and environmental exposure and effects data relevant to the agricultural context for impact assessment models, (4) spatial and temporal dependent components that can affect the results of an LCA of nano-enabled agrochemicals, and (5) high data uncertainties and the possibility of their reduction through collaborative efforts between life cycle practitioners and experimental researchers using anticipatory decision-based models. While several of these challenges are experienced in LCA of emerging technologies generally, they are highlighted herein due to their unique or heightened relevance to the use of ENMs in agriculture applications. Addressing challenges in these areas are intended to inform research prioritization to ensure safe and sustainable design, development, and implementation of nano-enabled agrochemicals.

Quantum dots (QDs) are semiconductor nanocrystals (2–10 nm) with tunable band gaps and desirable luminescence properties. QDs have created great interest in consumer electronics, photovoltaics, and chemical and/or biological sensor applications. For example, QDs absorb short wavelength light and emit light with a desired wavelength, making them ideal for LCD displays. QDs are just beginning to be used in mass-produced displays, including products such as televisions, tablets, and smartphones. The most widely applied QD composition—a CdSe core metalloid complex (CdQD)—faces increasing environmental and regulatory scrutiny because cadmium and selenium nanomaterials pose uncertain human health and environmental risks. As a result, some manufacturers have introduced InP-based (InQD) displays, which have been shown to be less toxic than CdQDs. However, instead of basing environmental decisions on material hazard alone, it is important to take a more holistic approach to avoid unintended consequences. This paper presents a comparative cradle-to-gate life cycle environmental assessment of CdQD- and InQD-enabled displays. In this study, we compare the cumulative energy demand (CED), also referred to as the primary energy consumption, of colloidally synthesized CdSe and InP multishell QDs, and their subsequent incorporation in different display types. Additionally, we compare the CED for the two competing commercially available QD display technologies: on-surface and on-edge. Lastly, we estimate the energy repercussion of large-scale adoption of each of the production pathways for QD display manufacture. The results show that InP QD-enabled displays are far more energy intensive than the CdSe QD displays, and this difference becomes further amplified when large-scale adoption is considered. Our study highlights that life cycle thinking is essential for recognizing opportunities to advance QD production along environmentally sustainable pathways, which is critical information for researchers, QD display manufacturers, and regulatory agencies.

The globally recognized need to advance more sustainable agriculture and food systems has motivated the emergence of transdisciplinary solutions, which include methodologies that utilize the properties of materials at the nanoscale to address extensive and inefficient resource use. Despite the promising prospects of these nanoscale materials, the potential for large-scale applications directly to the environment and to crops necessitates precautionary measures to avoid unintended consequences. Further, the effects of using engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in agricultural practices cascade throughout their life cycle and include effects from upstream-embodied resources and emissions from ENM production as well as their potential downstream environmental implications. Building on decades-long research in ENM synthesis, biological and environmental interactions, fate, transport and transformation, there is the opportunity to inform the sustainable design of nano-enabled agrochemicals. Here we perform a screening-level analysis that considers the system-wide benefits and costs for opportunities in which ENMs can advance the sustainability of crop-based agriculture. These include their on-farm use as (1) soil amendments to offset nitrogen fertilizer inputs, (2) seed coatings to increase germination rates and (3) foliar sprays to enhance yields. In each analysis, the nano-enabled alternatives are compared against the current practice on the basis of performance and embodied energy. In addition to identifying the ENM compositions and application approaches with the greatest potential to sustainably advance crop production, we present a holistic, prospective, systems-based approach that promotes emerging alternatives that have net performance and environmental benefits. A screening-level analysis that considers system-wide benefits and costs is used to identify opportunities where engineered nanomaterials can advance the sustainability of crop-based agriculture.

Silver-enabled textiles use the inherent antimicrobial properties of silver to produce a product with odor reduction capabilities. A touted benefit of these products is the ability to reduce their lifetime environmental impact through reductions in laundering. A comprehensive life cycle assessment is needed to fully understand the potential benefit of reduced laundering, environmental payback period, and potential to shift consumer-laundering behavior. Three commercially available silver-enabled polyester fabrics are compared to a conventional fabric using life cycle assessment methodology. Sima Pro software along with the Tool for Reduction and Assessment of Chemicals and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) impact categories are used to model the environmental impact of the four textiles (three with added silver, and one conventional textile) throughout their lifetimes. Environmental payback is used to determine the number of reductions of launderings necessary for environmental benefit to be realized from the inclusion of silver. Current literature on laundering motivations and habits is reviewed to yield insight on whether there is the potential for consumers to launder their textiles less frequently. The lifetime environmental impact of the three textiles considered varies as a function of the silver content and environmental impact category. In some impact categories, such as global warming potential, the laundering phase has the greatest environmental impact and thus has the potential for the greatest reduction. In other categories, such as ecotoxicity, the most significant impact is due to the percentage of silver that is released into surface water from the textile. In this case, environmental parity (the point at which the environmental impacts are the same) is not always possible to achieve. A review of the literature suggests that the motivation to launder textiles along with the frequency varies significantly across populations and times in history. Silver-enabled textiles have the potential to reduce the odors produced by unwashed textiles through bacterial inhibition. In some cases, there is the potential to achieve adequate reductions in laundering to compensate for the increased energy and raw materials needed to produce silver-enabled textile. However, frequency of laundering is largely a cultural norm based on perceived cleanliness and is unlikely to be shifted as a function of textile adoption.

Nanoscale silver has been incorporated into a variety of products where its antimicrobial properties enhance their functionality. One particular application is hospital linens, potential vectors of disease transmission. There is an on-going debate as to whether it is more beneficial to use disposable versus reusable hospital gowns in efforts to prevent nosocomial infections. This work models the life cycle impacts of nanoscale silver (nAg)-enabled, reusable hospital gowns from a life cycle assessment perspective and then compares the midpoint environmental impact data to the use of disposable hospital gowns. A key finding of this work is the environmental parity (when the environmental impact of nAg and disposable gowns are equal) of a nAg-enabled gown is 12 wearings. These results suggest that nAg textiles may be key in reducing the environmental impact of hospitals, while still preventing infection.

Artificial lighting has allowed the decoupling of human activities from natural daylight hours. Electricity utilized for artificial lighting accounts for 18.8% of U.S. electricity consumption. Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) and light-emitting diode (LED) options are more efficient and have longer lifetimes than conventional incandescent bulbs, but the question remains about the actual energy savings likely to be realized through more efficient lighting delivery systems. This uncertainty influences the rate of adoption and use of efficient lighting technology (and thus the extent and time lags of efficiency gains). Once adopted, gains in efficiency can lead to rebound effects that eliminate these gains and, paradoxically, lock society into increased use of energy. In this study, an agent-based model and complex systems approach is used to understand how available information and perceptions of different lighting options influence adoption and use, and the potential impact of the rebound effect to reduce the energy savings of energy-efficient lighting options in a residential setting. Individual households and their decisions are modeled to create overall population-level consumption data. The multifunctionality of LED lighting may cause consumers to use significantly more light, creating the potential for both rebound and backfire to occur. The results indicate that the adoption of CFL and LED lighting will decrease residential energy consumption if consumers continue to use the same amount or slightly more light; however, when an expansion of lit spaces is included or a large increase in lighting usage occurs, energy consumption will increase and, over time, reduce or completely erode energy savings.

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) and ENM-enabled products have emerged as potentially high-performance replacements to conventional materials and chemicals. As such, there is an urgent need to incorporate environmental and human health objectives into ENM selection and design processes. Here, an adapted framework based on the Ashby material selection strategy is presented as an enhanced selection and design process, which includes functional performance as well as environmental and human health considerations. The utility of this framework is demonstrated through two case studies, the design and selection of antimicrobial substances and conductive polymers, including ENMs, ENM-enabled products and their alternatives. Further, these case studies consider both the comparative efficacy and impacts at two scales: (i) a broad scale, where chemical/material classes are readily compared for primary decision-making, and (ii) within a chemical/material class, where physicochemical properties are manipulated to tailor the desired performance and environmental impact profile. Development and implementation of this framework can inform decision-making for the implementation of ENMs to facilitate promising applications and prevent unintended consequences.

An individual focus is needed to assess interconnected threats and build resilience worldwide, urge Jan Willem Erisman and colleagues.

Artificial lighting has transformed how humans relate to the world, by improving productivity and making spaces habitable. The adoption of energy-efficient solid-state lighting, light emitting diodes (LED), has been suggested as a way of reducing energy used for lighting. Such predictions rest on the assumptions of constant light density and time of use in the future, assumptions not supported by past trends. In order to better understand how consumers choose to adopt energy-efficient artificial lighting for their homes; a survey was administered in four major urban areas: Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco. Major insights from the survey indicate that if lighting becomes less expensive through adopting energy-efficient light sources, there is the potential for consumers to use considerably more, and the point at which the price for LED lighting yields broad market penetration is about one half of current prices. Regional factors such as lighting subsidies, taxation policies, laws, and educational information are also explored.

More energy efficient lighting options, such as compact fluorescent bulbs and light emitting diodes are predicted to significantly reduce the amount of energy used for lighting. Such forecasts are predicated on the assumption of light saturation and do not take into account the potential for economic rebound. The potential of the rebound effect to reduce or negate predicted energy savings is explored here. This work uses an agent-based model with a cellular automata approach to study the impact of rebound on the consumption of residential light and associated energy use, using three lighting technologies, and a time span from 2012 to 2030. Agents, representative of households, select between three lighting options using a multiplicative utility function and a probabilistic choice mechanism. Agents then decide whether to consume more light and potentially more energy based on the lighting technology selected and personal preferences. The agents are heterogeneous in nature, consisting of seven typologies, with their characteristics informed through survey data. The results of the model indicate that although the consumption of light may increase, overall changes in the consumption of energy compared to 2012 levels will be minor. If the consumption of light is held steady, assuming saturation, then there is the potential for the adoption of energy-efficient lighting to result in significant energy savings. However, if the rebound effect occurs, there will be a decrease in the consumption of energy for lighting as consumers adopt more energy efficient options. Overtime as the consumption of light continues to increase, those savings will largely be eroded. This study suggests that the adoption of energy-efficient lighting in itself will not reduce the overall consumption of energy for lighting on a long-term scale although it may be successful in doing so in the short-term. The rebound effect will greatly reduce the projected energy savings from more efficient lighting technologies, with potential for direct rebound to exceed 100 %. In order for the quantity of energy utilized in residential lighting to decrease, solutions beyond that of efficiency gains must be considered.

The attenuation of arsenic in groundwater near alkaline coal fly ash disposal facilities was evaluated by determining the uptake of arsenic from ash leachates by surrounding alkaline soils. Ten different alkaline soils near a retired coal fly ash impoundment were used in this study with pH ranging from 7.6 to 9.0, while representative coal fly ash samples from two different locations in the coal fly ash impoundment were used to produce two alkaline ash leachates with pH 7.4 and 8.2. The arsenic found in the ash leachates was present as arsenate [As(V)]. Adsorption isotherm experiments were carried out to determine the adsorption parameters required for predicting the uptake of arsenic from the ash leachates. For all soils and leachates, the adsorption of arsenic followed the Langmuir and Freundlich equations, indicative of the favorable adsorption of arsenic from leachates onto all soils. The uptake of arsenic was evaluated as a function of ash leachate characteristics and the soil components. The uptake of arsenic from alkaline ash leachates, which occurred mainly as calcium hydrogen arsenate, increased with increasing clay fraction of soil and with increasing soil organic matter of the alkaline soils. Appreciable uptake of arsenic from alkaline ash leachates with different pH and arsenic concentration was observed for the alkaline soils, thus attenuating the contamination of groundwater downstream of the retired coal fly ash impoundment.

Increasingly, institutions are reporting greenhouse gas emissions as a means to measure sustainability. One way higher education is taking a leadership role is through the American College and University Presidents Climate Commitment (ACUPCC), which requires signatory institutions to account for their emissions and develop a climate action plan with emissions reduction goals. Recent data for 135 colleges and universities reporting greenhouse gas emissions was characterized and analyzed. Greenhouse gas emissions from these institutions were found to be a function of the size of the institution (as measured by full-time student enrollment and building area), the amount of laboratory and residential space, whether there is a medical school, and the extent of commuting to campus by faculty, staff and students. Scope 1 and 2 emissions are primarily influenced by the physical size of the institution and secondarily by climate. When looking at gross (total scope 1, 2 and 3) emissions, laboratory space was found to have 10 times more effect on emissions per square meter than space such as classroom and office, while residential space had a two-fold effect. These results change somewhat when looking at smaller schools that have gross emissions of 50,000 metric tons of CO 2 -equivalent or less. These results have implications for institutions of higher education at the policy level in that those institutions that are more laboratory intense and face greater challenges in reducing their GHG footprint. Residential colleges and universities also experience a disproportionate impact on their emissions, probably as a result of the 24 h, 7-day a week demands of such campuses.

While significant advances in our understanding of the behavior of engineered nanoparticles in the environment continue, there remains a need to engage the nanoparticle research community directly in the development and evaluation of environmentally benign nanoparticles to ensure that nanomaterial-based industries emerge as tools for sustainability rather than environmental liabilities. Current research efforts aimed at understanding the environmental implications of nanotechnology emphasize existing groups of nanoparticles and products already in commercial distribution. While this is clearly necessary, this approach fails to identify and address the many tradeoffs associated with product performance and environmental quality. We believe this to be a critical gap in the ongoing exploration of nanostructured materials and their properties and applications. We posit that a number of issues are not being holistically addressed, including resource availability and allocation, manufacturing energy requirements and embodied energy, material efficiency, environmental properties of nanomaterials and nanoproducts, and waste generation. An interdisciplinary approach to research, based on the life cycle paradigm and devoted to the identification, investigation, synthesis, testing, and analysis of groups of new, more environmentally conscious nanoparticles is needed. (© 2011 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Leaching of arsenic from ash in coal fly ash disposal facilities is a cause for concern due to possible contamination of groundwater. Sequential batch and column leaching experiments were carried out to determine the leaching of arsenic from ash found at a retired ash impoundment basin near a coal-fired power plant. This study assessed the leaching characteristics of arsenic from aged alkaline coal fly ash as a function of ash properties and ash depth. Comparable levels of arsenic leached from the ash in column leaching (10.5%) and sequential batch leaching (11.1%) after 14 days (7 stages) of leaching, while less arsenic (17.8%) leached for column leaching than for sequential leaching (22.0%) after 42 days (21 stages) of leaching. The leaching characteristics of arsenic in column leaching and sequential batch leaching were similar, where more than half of the leaching of arsenic occurred within 14 days of leaching with the maximum leaching of arsenic occurring during the second and third stages of leachin...

Some emerging technologies are expected to be pivotal for solving many of the environmental challenges faced today, especially those related to energy. However, many of these technologies may incur significant environmental impacts over their life cycle, while having environmental benefits during their use. This paper presents results of a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a proposed type of nanophotovoltaic, quantum dot photovoltaic (QDPV) module. The LCA is confined to the stages of raw materials acquisition, manufacturing, and use. The impacts of QDPV are compared with other types of PV modules and energy sources – both renewable and nonrenewable. To provide a comprehensive comparative assessment, QDPV modules were compared with mature as well as emerging PV types for which data are available. Comparative assessment with other types of energy sources includes coal, oil, lignite, natural gas, diesel, nuclear, wind, and hydropower. QDPV modules may have the potential to overcome two current barriers of solar technology: low efficiencies and high manufacturing costs. If higher efficiencies are realized, QDPV modules could pave the way to large scale implementation of solar energy, helping nations move toward greater energy independence. On the other hand, candidate materials as quantum dots for solar cell applications are mostly compound semiconductors such as cadmium selenide, cadmium telluride, and lead sulfide which may be toxic and for which renewable options are limited. Toxic effects of these materials may be exacerbated by their nanoscale features. The LCA was carried out using the software SimaPro, and the Ecoinvent Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) database supplemented with available literature and patent information. Our results indicate that while QDPV modules have shorter Energy PayBack Time (EPBT), lower Global Warming Potential (GWP), SOx and NOx emissions than other types of PV modules, they have higher heavy metal emissions, underscoring the need for investigation of emerging technologies, especially nano-based ones, from a life cycle perspective. QDPV modules are better in all impact categories assessed than carbon-based energy sources but they have longer EPBT than wind and hydropower and higher GWP.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories are becoming a common measure of environmental impact and sustainability for institutions. The University of Illinois in Chicago (UIC) prepared a GHG inventory for ...

Summary Sustainable development of nanotechnology will inevitably require incorporation of life cycle thinking to analyze environmental impacts of nanomanufacturing. While many concerns have been raised regarding the human and ecological health effects of and benefits from using nanoproducts, relatively little attention has been given to the manufacturing phase. Unlike many conventional manufacturing techniques, nanomanufacturing techniques require unique facility and process design as well as operation and control. Accordingly, the environmental burden of most nanomanufacturing techniques may be more profound than that of many other conventional techniques. This article reports on a comprehensive review of the current state of technologies used in the manufacture of nanostructured materials in order to identify those attributes that contribute to environmental impacts. It provides a preliminary analysis of significant attributes of commonly used nanomanufacturing techniques, including strict material purity requirements, less tolerance for defects, low process yields and material utilization efficiencies, repetitive processing steps, the need for specialized environments (such as high temperatures or cryogenic processing), the use of toxic chemicals and solvents, the need for moderate to high vacuum, the use or generation of greenhouse gases, high energy and water consumption, and the potential for chemical exposure.

Three established life-cycle inventories of agricultural operations were used to generate air emissions data for soybean production: the greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation (GREET) model; the economic input-output life-cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) model; and SimaPro software equipped with the Franklin database. EIO-LCA and GREET baseline data were compared to evaluate differences in boundary definitions that apply specifically to U.S. soybean agriculture and processing, which resulted in several major findings. The EIO model estimated for emissions of particulate matter less than 10 micrograms (PM10) resulting from wind erosion that were not included in GREET, but neglected indirect nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from fertilizer application. EIO also assumed significantly lower process energy requirements and lower volatile organic compounds (VOC) for soybean crushing and oil extraction. The GREET and SimaPro models were compared using identical boundary and assumption data, to reveal major discrepancies in fundamental assumptions of energy inventories. Key emission factors varied by several orders of magnitude for basic energy generation and combustion processes, potentially impacting results for any inventory analysis that contains significant energy consumption. The Franklin database assumed VOC and sulfur oxides (SOx) emissions more than an order of magnitude higher than GREET for all categories investigated, with significantly lower N2O and methane (CH4) emission factors.

Firms engaged in industrial ecology hope to reduce environmental impacts and costs, improve resource efficiency, and create symbiotic relationships that reduce transaction costs and enhance information flow. However, current LCA tools do not explain firms' incentives to implement the principles of industrial ecology, or how an individual or firm can affect the products and processes at other firms. Game theory, on the other hand, allows investigation of the willingness of producers and consumers to seek strategies that promote the common interest of the system while not harming their own interests. This paper applies game theory to the lifecycle of bottle packaging, and presents a framework for analysis of the choice between refillable and disposable bottles. Although refillable bottles may be more cost effective in the long run, bottlers only have incentive to use refillable bottles when they are sure that consumer return rates will be reasonably high. It has been found that consumers who keep or dispose of refillable bottles, or respond to deposit/refund return incentives by reducing their demand, may drive costs up and encourage adoption of disposables. A simple model is provided which finds the optimal bottler strategy as a function of the bottler's expectations for consumer cooperation.

Life-cycle analyses are needed to evaluate the potential benefits and consequences of bioproducts as petroleum substitutes.

A comparative life cycle assessment examining soybean and petroleum-based lubricants is compiled using Monte Carlo analysis to assess system variability. Experimental data obtained from an aluminum manufacturing facility indicate significantly less soybean lubricant is required to achieve similar or superior performance. With improved performance and a lower use rate, a transition to soybean oil results in lower aggregate impacts of acidification, smog formation, and human health from criteria pollutants. Regardless of quantity consumed, soybean-based lubricants exhibit significant climate change and fossil fuel use benefits; however, eutrophication impacts are much greater due to non-point nutrient emissions. Fundamental tradeoffs in the carbon and nitrogen cycles are addressed in the analysis, demonstrating that a transition to soybean oil may result in climate change benefits at the expense of regional water quality.

Biobased product life cycle assessments (LCAs) have focused largely on energy (fossil fuel) usage and greenhouse gas emissions during the agriculture and production stages. This paper compiles a more comprehensive life cycle inventory (LCI) for use in future bioproduct LCAs that rely on corn or soybean crops as feedstocks. The inventory includes energy, C, N, P, major pesticides, and U.S. EPA criteria air pollutants that result from processes such as fertilizer production, energy production, and on-farm chemical and equipment use. Agroecosystem material flows were modeled using a combination of GREET (the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation model), a linear fractionation model that describes P biogeochemical cycling, and Monte Carlo Analysis. Results show that the dominant air emissions resulted from crop farming, fertilizers, and on-farm nitrogen flows (e.g., N2O and NO). Seed production and irrigation provided no more than 0.002% to any of the inventory emissions or energy flows and may be neglected in future LCAs of corn or soybeans as feedstocks from the U.S. Corn Belt. Lime contributes significantly (17% of total emissions) to air emissions and should not be neglected in bioproduct LCAs. (A)

Silver was utilized throughout history to prevent the growth of bacteria in food and wounds. Recently, nanoscale silver has been applied to consumer textiles (nAg-textiles) to eliminate the prevalence of odor-causing bacteria. In turn, it is proposed that consumers will launder these items less frequently thus, reducing the life cycle impacts. While previous studies report that laundering processes are associated with the greatest environmental impacts of these textiles, there is no data available to support the proposed shift in consumer laundering behavior. Here, the results from a comprehensive literature review of nAg-textile life cycle studies are used to inform a cradle-to-grave life cycle impact assessment. Rather than assuming shifts in consumer behavior, the impact assessment is conducted in such a way that considers all laundering scenarios to elucidate the potential for reduced laundering to enable realization of a net life cycle benefit. In addition to identifying the most impactful stages of the life cycle across nine-midpoint categories, a payback period and uncertainty analysis quantifies the reduction in lifetime launderings required to recover the impacts associated with nanoenabling the textile. Reduction of nAg-textile life cycle impacts is not straightforward and depends on the impact category considered.

The sustainable redevelopment of brownfields reflects a fundamental, yet logical, shift in thinking and policy-making regarding pollution prevention. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to assist in determining the conformity of brownfield development projects to the sustainability paradigm. In this study, LCA was applied to the assessment of two brownfield redevelopment projects, one in Milwaukee, WI, USA, and the other Chicago, IL, USA, to compare the cumulative energies required to complete the following redevelopment stages: brownfield assessment and remediation; building construction/rehabilitation and site development; and long-term operation. The results show that the redeveloped site buildings consume energy at a significantly lower intensity than the median energy use intensity of commercial buildings in the Midwest of the USA. Thus, it is clear that brownfield redevelopment offers a significant opportunity for the construction of more energy-efficient buildings and the associated long-term conservation of natural resources. The source of a building’s operational energy plays a large role in the life cycle impacts because, for example, coal-fired power plants emit more greenhouse gases than nuclear power plants. Site location also determines a significant role in a brownfield redevelopment’s life cycle. Secondary impacts can erode gains in building energy efficiency, with as much as 44% of a site’s annual operational energy being consumed by commuter transportation.

Industrial ecology is sometimes referred to as the science of sustainability, but unlike mature sciences, it has yet to establish reliable modes of inquiry or a uniform framework for dialogue—partly because sustainability is difficult to characterize, and partly because industry–environment interactions are difficult to model quantitatively. A number of sustainability metrics have recently been proposed that partially address the quantification problem, but inevitably oversimplify the problem of sustainability characterization. This paper proposes an overarching taxonomy for classifying the quantitative criteria of sustainability as financial, thermodynamic, environmental, ecological, socio-political or aggregated. Several examples are presented. Pollution potential, which is an environmental metric related to the ideal thermodynamic work (of mixing) per mole required to remove pollutants from the environment, is discussed in particular. However, because no single metric can capture sustainability per se, industrial ecology may be limited to elucidating the trade-offs that exist between different types of complementary (rather than substitutable) criteria. The life cycle of polyurethane foam insulation in freezer applications is presented as a quantitative example of how different environmental criteria can lead to different design recommendations. Lastly, the framework proposed herein suggests a research agenda for industrial ecology, especially regarding the linkages between different measures of sustainability and cross-comparison of the investigative methods found in different sciences related to sustainability.

This paper reports on the methodology and results of a baseline life-cycle inventory (LCI) performed on toner used in the xerographic process. Toner is the dry ink that creates the image on paper and is used in most copiers and some large printers. The goal is to perform an LCI on a system that encompasses the life-cycle of toner in order to determine the environmental effects related to the product. The findings of the study show that the system is mainly a classical “cradle to grave” model, although recycle streams within the system improve the overall environmental performance. The majority of the solid process waste produced (95%) is associated with post-toner production processes, and the majority of the air emissions in the system resulted from energy use. Post-production processes combine for just over 85% of the total energy used in the system, with customer use accounting for 58% of the total.

The design and operation of complex remediation projects can often benefit from an analysis from a systems perspective, that is one in which the various components of the system are viewed holistically, and a specific objective and associated constraints are articulated. This paper reports on such an analysis of a multiyear pump-and-treat scheme for removing light nonaqueous phase liquid from groundwater with subsequent treatment of the water for removal or destruction of the sum of benzene, toulene, ethylbenzene, and xylene concentrations, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon, carbon oxygen demand, particulate iron, and suspended solids prior to discharge. The treatment train consists of eight unit processes linked in series. The objective is to minimize total net present value of operating costs over the projected life of the treatment facility given constraints on permitted discharge limits, and the performance characteristics and requirements of the contaminant removal processes. Results indicate that the system is especially sensitive to flow rate, fixed costs of operation, and the projected quantity of oil to be recovered prior to disengagement, with the greatest cost penalty existing for underutilization of the treatment facility. Matching pumping rate with treatment capacity is seen to be the most important design factor in minimizing overall costs, however various options available to management to improve upon non-optimal conditions are discussed.

The presence of perchlorate in water supplies may have deleterious human health effects. Electrochemical and electrophotocatalytic reduction of the perchlorate ion to the chloride ion were assessed at laboratory scale. Studies were carried out in two-chambered batch reactor systems in which the cathodic and anodic compartments were separated by an ion exchange membrane. Electrodes consisted of titanium coated with a thin film of small TiO 2 particles. Test water systems were buffered to an acid pH and a background electrolyte was added. Applied voltages ranged from −1.75 to −2.0 v. For photolytic systems, ultraviolet light was supplied. Initial perchlorate concentrations ranged from 5×10 −2 M to 5×10 −7 M. Reduction initially proceeded rapidly but slowed with time. The percentage of perchlorate electrochemically reduced after 2 h was found to range from less than 1% at the highest concentration to 30–35% at lower concentrations. The extent of photocatalytic reduction at high perchlorate concentrations was approximately five times greater than for electrochemical reduction at the same concentrations. An additional fourfold improvement in reduction percentage was noted when the electrode was doped with vanadium. A mathematical model suggested that the limiting factor in perchlorate reduction was competition among anions for active sites on the electrode surface. Application of this technology for decontamination of water supplies will require further advances in electrode technology and/or innovations in engineering design.

This paper introduces a novel thermodynamic measure of chemical change in the environment called pollutionpotential, which is defined as the change in exergy of mixing per mole of chemical species in the environment that may be attributed to pollutant releases – equivalent to the ideal exergy per mole required to remove a pollutant from the environment. Because all chemical pollutants may be measured in terms of pollution potential, the methodology described may provide a scientific basis for cross-comparison of disparate environmental impacts such as global warming potential (GWP) and ozone depletion potential (ODP) in a single measure. As an illustrative example, steady-state pollution potentials are calculated for several CFC replacements and a strong correlation between pollution potential and GWP is found for hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Although ozone depletion is found to be a significant factor in the pollution potential of CFC-11, for hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) the contribution of ozone effects to total pollution potential is minimal. These findings suggest that policies that favor marginal reductions in ODP without regard for other environmental effects (e.g. climate change) may have unintended and detrimental consequences.

Industrial ecology (IE) has been characterized by a fragmented approach encompassing a number of different perspectives and analytical techniques. A uniform framework has yet to be established or proposed. This paper partially addresses this shortcoming by tracing some of the historical and intellectual antecedents of the field, providing a clear and concise lexicon of the biological analogue, and contrasting the two most promising analytical methods by which IE research may be carried out: life cycle assessment (LCA) and systems analysis. Although a number of comparative environmental metrics may be employed in cost-minimization or thermodynamic efficiency studies, no single measure is sufficiently developed to prioritize among qualitatively disparate types of environmental impacts. It is argued herein that the concept of chemical exergy of mixing may be the most promising basis for the development of a uniform, broad-based measure of chemical pollution, and that such a measure could significantly advance a scientific approach to IE. Some theoretical background is presented, although the reasoning herein is intended to be accessible to an interdisciplinary audience.

This paper describes an experimental technique involving the use of small columns for generating significant quantities of leachate data from municipal solid waste (MSW) solid residues within a relatively short amount of time. Data analysis using the discretized mass balance equations descriptive of the system results in best estimates of governing transport parameters that can, in turn, be used to predict the long-term release of leachable components (As, Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, SO4) from the solid matrix. Results indicate that both chemical solubility and physical transport are important factors affecting the flux of contaminants from the solid to the solution phase.

The waste exergy approach to quantitative comparison of environmental impacts is considerably improved by proposing a separate accounting of material and energetic waste exergy and the implications are discussed within the context of sustainability. The exergy of mixing of a waste stream is found to be particularly well suited to an exergetic definition of chemical pollution and a correlative relationship with environmental pollutant cost (EPC) is suggested. A comprehensive measure of chemical environmental impact called pollution potential is defined as temperature multiplied by the change in configurational entropy per mole of pollutant in the environment. The result is related to the ideal thermodynamic work of chemical separation per mole required to instantaneously revoke a chemical pollutant, thereby returning the environment to a pristine reference condition. The current pollution potentials and total exergy of revocation of several notable atmospheric pollutants are estimated. Carbon dioxide is found to have low pollution potential in comparison to most halogenated hydrocarbons, but the vast quantities of anthropogenic carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would require much more total exergy of separation to revoke.

Publisher Summary Nanotechnological innovations offer promise to solve many of the challenging global environmental problems facing humanity. One important class of nano-structured materials that have drawn particular attention consists of various semiconductors that have either direct or indirect environmental benefits ranging from advanced purification of air and water to improved devices for cleaner energy production. However, the advantages of such applications must ultimately be balanced against the environmental costs associated with their complete life cycle: manufacture, use, and disposal. Such an analysis also assists in identifying the most material, energy, and toxicity intensive aspects of the application, and provides a basis for improvement. To date, the literature on cleaner manufacturing of nanodevices and end-of-life behavior of semiconductor materials is sparse. This chapter explores the various applications of semiconductor nanodevices for environmental applications, and quantifies the cradle-to-grave life cycle impacts of a specific nanostructure: cadmium selenide quantum dots. Raw material, energy use, and emissions associated with their synthesis are quantified and a particular application, photovoltaic solar panels, is examined.

Studies were carried out on Luria Bertani (LB) nutrient broth, typical of growth media used to grow strains of luminescent bacteria such as E. coli pCulux, in order to ascertain the chemical speciation of added copper and infer the effect of speciation on luminescent response. Both acid-base and complexometric (with Cu) titrations were conducted. Data were analyzed using the binding spectrum approach in which the concentration and pK value of the reactions of interest are estimated. Results of acid-base titration indicated that LB contains both inorganic and a suite of organic functional groups, the latter probably associated with proteins and amino acids contained in the materials used in making the medium. Titration with cupric ion suggested the presence of two copper-binding groups for freshly prepared LB, but three groups for media in which the bacteria had been allowed to grow for several hours, indicating either the introduction of a Cu-binding substance associated with microbial metabolism,...

A model has been developed that describes the kinetics of particle aggregation by a numerical solution of the von Smoluchowski equation. While the complete model incorporates surface chemical phenomena, this paper discusses only the physical aggregation process, and focuses on long-term aggregation where aggregates composed of many primary particles (up to 2000) are formed. Model simulations were compared with laboratory experiments that were conducted with hematite spheres aggregating with no applied shear stress. Comparison was achieved by minimizing the sum of squared differences between the model and experimental data using two fitting parameters: the collision efficiency and the fractal dimension of the aggregates. The model was sensitive to the two parameters, which had a small degree of dependence on one another as evidenced by the orientation of the joint confidence regions. Estimates of the fractal dimension varied inversely with collision efficiency and were between 1.25 and 1.5; lower than many estimates by others for diffusion-controlled processes but consistent with cluster–cluster aggregation of aggregates comprised of very dense particles. The collision efficiency was estimated to be 1×10−4 for slow aggregation conditions, and 2×10−4 under rapid aggregation; these values reflect inclusion of hydrodynamic interactions and their significance in a system dominated by differential settling.

The aggregation kinetics of fully destabilized colloidal hematite particles under conditions of varying laminar shear stress were investigated. Particle size distributions were measured over time, which allowed for a mechanistic evaluation of various aggregate–aggregate interaction rates. It was observed experimentally that large aggregates react rapidly with sub-micron size fractions under conditions of an applied shear stress; Brownian motion appears to dominate interactions only at early times when a monomodal size distribution exists. It was hypothesized that collisions between dissimilar sized aggregates are favored under laminar shear conditions. The experimental results also suggest that hydrodynamic influences are less important when porous, fractal aggregates are interacting than in interactions between impermeable spheres.

A significant potential exists to lower energy consumption and reduce sludge production by incorporating anaerobic processes into wastewater treatment trains. The specific treatment arrangement studied in this case is the anaerobic treatment of primary clarifier effluent of wastewater treatment plants. Anaerobic batch assays showed that the primary clarifier effluent used in this study was ultimately 90% or more anaerobically biodegradable, thus suitable for anaerobic treatment. The anaerobic expanded bed reactor (AEBR) performed well over a wide range of influent CODs and temperatures, especially under severe conditions (5°C and 50 mg/L influent COD). The most efficient treatment was obtained with HRTs of three to six hours and influent COD of approximately 150 mg/L. Start-up of the reactor took about 60 days at 30°C and 80 days at 20°C.

A unified model has been developed that describes the kinetics of particle aggregation. The model is unique in the incorporation of surface chemical phenomena along with solution chemistry in the determination of the stability of a colloidal dispersion. The aggregation process is treated in a truly kinetic fashion, the main output from the model being the evolution of complete particle size distributions over time. The model was developed to interpret laboratory data and, as such, has the capacity to estimate a (variable) set of system parameters by fitting the size distribution over time data to that measured. It was found that the attachment distance, a parameter frequently approximated in practice, has a profound influence on the predicted aggregation kinetics as does the choice of a solid/solution interfacial model. Furthermore, simulation of relatively long-term aggregation, which was the principal focus of this work, indicates that values of the collision efficiency factor should be much smaller than those reported elsewhere in the literature.