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OBJECTIVENormal percentile growth charts for head circumference, length, and weight are well-established tools for clinicians to detect abnormal growth patterns. Currently, no standard exists for evaluating normal size or growth of cerebral ventricular volume. The current standard practice relies on clinical experience for a subjective assessment of cerebral ventricular size to determine whether a patient is outside the normal volume range. An improved definition of normal ventricular volumes would facilitate a more data-driven diagnostic process. The authors sought to develop a growth curve of cerebral ventricular volumes using a large number of normal pediatric brain MR images.METHODSThe authors performed a retrospective analysis of patients aged 0 to 18 years, who were evaluated at their institution between 2009 and 2016 with brain MRI performed for headaches, convulsions, or head injury. Patients were excluded for diagnoses of hydrocephalus, congenital brain malformations, intracranial hemorrhage, meningitis, or intracranial mass lesions established at any time during a 3- to 10-year follow-up. The volume of the cerebral ventricles for each T2-weighted MRI sequence was calculated with a custom semiautomated segmentation program written in MATLAB. Normal percentile curves were calculated using the lambda-mu-sigma smoothing method.RESULTSVentricular volume was calculated for 687 normal brain MR images obtained in 617 different patients. A chart with standardized growth curves was developed from this set of normal ventricular volumes representing the 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th percentiles. The charted data were binned by age at scan date by 3-month intervals for ages 0–1 year, 6-month intervals for ages 1–3 years, and 12-month intervals for ages 3–18 years. Additional percentile values were calculated for boys only and girls only.CONCLUSIONSThe authors developed centile estimation growth charts of normal 3D ventricular volumes measured on brain MRI for pediatric patients. These charts may serve as a quantitative clinical reference to help discern normal variance from pathologic ventriculomegaly.

Given the serious nature of many neurosurgical pathologies, it is common for hospitalized patients to elect comfort care (CC) over aggressive treatment. Few studies have evaluated the incidence and risk factors of CC trends in patients admitted for neurosurgical emergencies. To analyze all neurosurgical patients admitted to a tertiary care academic referral center via the emergency department (ED) to determine incidence and characteristics of those who initiated CC measures during their initial hospital admission. We performed a prospective, cohort analysis of all consecutive adult patients admitted to the neurosurgical service via the ED between October 2018 and May 2019. The primary outcome was the initiation of CC measures during the patient’s hospital admission. CC was defined as cessation of life-sustaining measures and a shift in focus to maintaining the comfort and dignity of the patient. Of the 428 patients admitted during the 7-month period, 29 (6.8%) initiated CC measures within 4.0 ± 4.0 days of admission. Patients who entered CC were significantly more likely to have a medical history of cerebrovascular disease (58.6% vs. 33.3%, p = 0.006), dementia (17.2% vs. 1.5%, p = 0.0004), or cancer with metastatic disease (24.1% vs. 7.0%, p = 0.001). Patients with a presenting pathology associated with cerebrovascular disease were significantly more likely to initiate CC (62.1% vs. 35.3, p = 0.04). Patients who underwent emergent surgery were significantly more likely to enter CC compared with those who had elective surgery (80.0% vs. 42.7%, p = 0.02). Only 10 of the 29 (34.5%) patients who initiated CC underwent a neurosurgical operation (p = 0.002). Twenty of the 29 (69.0%) patients died within 0.8 ± 0.8 days after the initiation of CC measures. CC measures were initiated in 6.8% of patients admitted to the neurosurgical service via the ED, with the majority of patients entering CC before an operation and presenting with a cerebrovascular pathology.

Given the serious nature of many neurosurgical pathologies, it is common for hospitalized patients to elect comfort care (CC) over aggressive treatment. Few studies have evaluated the incidence and risk factors of CC trends in patients admitted for neurosurgical emergencies.To analyze all neurosurgical patients admitted to a tertiary care academic referral center via the emergency department (ED) to determine incidence and characteristics of those who initiated CC measures during their initial hospital admission.We performed a prospective, cohort analysis of all consecutive adult patients admitted to the neurosurgical service via the ED between October 2018 and May 2019. The primary outcome was the initiation of CC measures during the patient's hospital admission. CC was defined as cessation of life-sustaining measures and a shift in focus to maintaining the comfort and dignity of the patient.Of the 428 patients admitted during the 7-month period, 29 (6.8%) initiated CC measures within 4.0 ± 4.0 days of admission. Patients who entered CC were significantly more likely to have a medical history of cerebrovascular disease (58.6% vs. 33.3%, p = 0.006), dementia (17.2% vs. 1.5%, p = 0.0004), or cancer with metastatic disease (24.1% vs. 7.0%, p = 0.001). Patients with a presenting pathology associated with cerebrovascular disease were significantly more likely to initiate CC (62.1% vs. 35.3, p = 0.04). Patients who underwent emergent surgery were significantly more likely to enter CC compared with those who had elective surgery (80.0% vs. 42.7%, p = 0.02). Only 10 of the 29 (34.5%) patients who initiated CC underwent a neurosurgical operation (p = 0.002). Twenty of the 29 (69.0%) patients died within 0.8 ± 0.8 days after the initiation of CC measures.CC measures were initiated in 6.8% of patients admitted to the neurosurgical service via the ED, with the majority of patients entering CC before an operation and presenting with a cerebrovascular pathology.

Background The incidence of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) continues to increase, and the spine is the most common site for bony metastasis. Radiation therapy is one treatment for spinal RCC metastasis. Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is a newer treatment that reportedly has benefits over conventional external beam radiotherapy. This study systematically reviewed the current literature on SBRT for metastatic RCC to spine. Methods A search of PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases was conducted in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Clinical articles evaluating SBRT for RCC metastases were identified. After inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, the search resulted in 9 articles. Data including pain outcomes, local control, survival outcomes, vertebral compression fracture (VCF), and toxicity were extracted and evaluated. Results The studies analyzed showed an improvement in pain in 41%–95% of patients. Local control rates after SBRT ranged 71.2%–85.7% at 1 year, a significant improvement when compared with conventional external beam radiotherapy. The rate of VCF after treatment with SBRT ranged 16%–27.5%, with single-fraction therapy being a risk factor for increased incidence. Overall toxicity rates ranged 23%–38.5%, with only 3 cases of grade 3 toxicity (nausea) and no cases of radiation myelitis. Conclusions Use of SBRT for spinal metastasis from RCC resulted in significant local control and pain outcomes. There is a risk of VCF with SBRT; however, treatment seems to be well tolerated with few serious side effects. There is continued need for long-term prospective studies investigating the optimal role of SBRT in the treatment algorithm of RCC spinal metastases.

Background Ionizing radiation is typically used during spine surgery for localization and guidance in instrumentation placement. Minimally invasive (MI) surgical procedures are increasingly popular and often require significantly more fluoroscopy, placing surgeons at risk for increased radiation exposure and radiation-induced complications. This study provides recommendations for minimizing risk of radiation-induced injury to spine surgeons and summarizes studies addressing radiation exposure in spine procedures. Methods The PubMed database was queried for relevant articles pertaining to radiation exposure in spine surgery. Results Discectomy, percutaneous pedicle screw placement, MI transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion, MI lateral lumbar interbody fusion, and vertebroplasty/kyphoplasty procedures were assessed. The highest radiation doses were seen with MI pedicle screw placement, MI transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion, vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty, and percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy. Use of lead aprons and thyroid shields reduces effective dose by several orders of magnitude. Proper operator positioning also minimizes radiation exposure. Lead gloves decrease dose to the surgeon's hand from scatter if the hand is out of the x-ray beam most of the time. If prolonged exposure of the hand cannot be avoided, the technician should collimate the surgeon's hand out of the beam or use instruments to position the hand farther from the beam. In addition to using less fluoroscopy, pulsed fluoroscopy can decrease overall dose in a procedure. Conclusions Spine surgeons should reduce their exposure to radiation to minimize risk of potential long-term complications. Strategies include minimizing fluoroscopy use and dose, proper use of protective gear, and appropriate manipulation of fluoroscopic equipment.

Regeneration of endogenous axons through a Schwann cell (SC)-seeded scaffold implant has been demonstrated in the transected rat spinal cord. The formation of a cellular lining in the scaffold channel may limit the degree of axonal regeneration. Spinal cords of adult rats were transected and implanted with the SC-loaded polylactic co-glycollic acid (PLGA) scaffold implants containing seven parallel-aligned channels, either 450 μm (n = 19) or 660 μm in diameter (n = 14). Animals were sacrificed after 1, 2 and 3 months. Immunohistochemistry for neurofilament expression was performed. The cross-sectional area of fibrous tissue and regenerative core was calculated. We found that the 450 μm scaffolds had significantly greater axon fibers per channel at the 1 month (186 ± 37) and 3 month (78 ± 11) endpoints than the 660 μm scaffolds (90 ± 19 and 40 ± 6, respectively) (p = 0.0164 and 0.0149, respectively). The difference in the area of fibrous rim between the 450 and 660 μm channels was most pronounced at the 1 month endpoint, at 28,046 ± 6551 and 58,633 ± 7063 μm2, respectively (p = 0.0105). Our study suggests that fabricating scaffolds with smaller diameter channels promotes greater regeneration over larger diameter channels. Axonal regeneration was reduced in the larger channels due to the generation of a large fibrous rim. Optimization of this scaffold environment establishes a platform for future studies of the effects of cell types, trophic factors or pharmacological agents on the regenerative capacity of the injured spinal cord.

✓ The coexistence of a large intracranial arteriovenous malformation (AVM) and a hypercoagulation disorder is rare. The AVM puts the patient at risk for progressive neurological deficit, seizures, and, most importantly, intracranial hemorrhage. The hypercoagulation disorder may result in an increased risk of stroke. The authors describe a 42-year-old man with a Spetzler—Martin Grade 5 AVM who experienced progressive neurological decline. He was subsequently discovered to have partial thrombosis of the AVM, deep cerebral and cortical venous thrombosis, and a hypercoagulation disorder. Hypercoagulation disorders causing neurological deficits are usually treated with anticoagulant medications; however, this approach was not thought to be safe in the presence of a large AVM. Therefore, the AVM nidus was surgically extirpated and a ventriculoperitoneal shunt was placed to treat the increased intracranial pressure caused by the cortical and deep cerebral venous thrombosis. Subsequently, lifelong oral anticoagulation was prescribed. The patient had a progressive neurological recovery and is now living independently at home. The occurrence of partial or complete spontaneous thrombosis of an AVM nidus should raise the possibility of an underlying hypercoagulation disorder.