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The article is devoted to the consideration of the script in the modern history of the German literary language, associated with the design of its normative graphics (graphemics), in particular the «font dispute: antiqua vs gothic» in the first half of the 20th century. For a significant period of historical development, the German literary language is marked by «cognitive dissonance» caused in the linguistic consciousness of its speakers by the collision of «conflicting» variants of Latin characters. The parallel use of various graphic variants of writing (diglyph), especially at the stage of the modern history of the German language, is marked by the influence of various extra-linguistic factors (ideology, confessional, cultural differences, national and state policies, etc.). A pressing issue is the consideration of the radical and controversial language policy in the totalitarian Third Reich in 1933–1945. Declaring Fraktur as a «national script», a symbol of identity and the embodiment of basic doctrines (unity of the nation and German-speaking ethnic groups, anti-Semitism, «struggle for culture», the idea of superiority), the National Socialists in 1941, at the stage of reorienting their policy towards «Eurocentrism», declared it replacement of the previously rejected antiqua as «normative German writing». The article provides a critical stage-by-stage analysis of the scenarios of the language policy of National Socialism in the «dispute about graphics», attempts to use a «compromise font» (Futura). Ideologemes associated with this practice are analyzed as lexical markers (Sprachregelung, Kulturkampf, Schrifttum, Judenlettern, deutsche Volksschrift/Normalschrift, etc.). The result of the study was the construction of a model of «font strategy» as a special linguistic-semiotic phenomenon of the language policy of the Third Reich. The conclusions note a peculiar reflection of the «font dispute» in different types of texts of 1933–1945 and in the military discourse of the Third Reich.

In 1944 Berlin received through different communication channels genuine information about the actions initiated by the democratic opposition, the Royal House and, last but not least, the disgruntled elements within the Great General Headquarters in order to remove the Antonescu regime from power and to conclude an armistice with the United Nations. However, the warnings failed to produce any concrete effects, as the leaders of the Third Reich constantly ignored them and seriously underestimated the ability of the democratic opposition to remove Marshal Ion Antonescu from power. For the Third Reich, the political, economic and military consequences of Romania's defection were devastating. From a political point of view, for Berlin the act of 23 August meant losing an ally and gaining a new enemy. In addition, the step taken by Romania considerably influenced the attitude of the other allies/satellites of Germany, namely, Bulgaria, Hungary, Finland, and Slovakia. From an economic point of view, the loss of the oilfields around Ploieşti led to a dramatic decrease in the quantity of fuel supplied to the German war machine. The Führer himself would name three major crises with which the Wehrmacht had had to deal in 1944: the Normandy landings, the fall of Army Group Center and, last but not least, "Romania's betrayal" on 23 August 1944. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Angewandte Linguistik is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This is an extract from Pauer-Studer, H. (2020). Justifying injustice. Legal theory in Nazi Germany. (Cambridge University Press, 2020, pp. 117–124). The author analyses the adaptation of German law to the political goals of National Socialism.

This paper aims to analyse the ambiguous relationship with modernity of the holiday spaces in the Third Reich. The Kraft durch Freude (KdF) and the Hitlerjugend, the two major Nazi organisations dedicated to normalising the leisure time of the Reich's subjects, were protagonists of architectural experiences characterised by opposing conceptions of modernity. Two radically opposed architectural models seem to emerge from the KdF Seebad Prora seaside resort and from the ideal layout of the camp recommended by the Hitlerjugend manuals: the machine and the camp. The analysis and comparison of these two models define an opportunity to investigate the complexity of the totalitarian spatial ecosystem by analysing its two-faced approach to modernity, its structural link with the regime and the contemporary perception of its difficult heritage, attempting to dispel certain prejudices and oversimplifications regarding Nazi Germany's planning.

This article is a synthetic summary of the previous research on individual cases of postwar criminal conviction for activities, in the occupied Polish areas, of lawyers of the Third Reich (judges and prosecutors). The main axis of the considerations is formed by instances of prosecution before Polish courts, however, analysis is carried out against the background of three normative models specified in literature, based on: the Nuremberg judgment, West German doctrine and Radbruch formula, and East German judicial practice. In this context, the author attempts to answer the question if, on the basis of Polish legislation and Polish judicial practice, a fourth - Polish - model can be distinguished. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The novel Stimmen der Nacht by Thomas Ziegler, with its two versions of 1984 and 1993, constitutes an important chapter in the discussion on German reunification, read through the key of uchronia. Indeed, in the first version, Stimmen der Nacht represents the victory of the Third Reich in the Second World War as a speculative hypothesis, an absolute nightmare averted once and for all in the real history; in the second version, however, after the Wende, the reawakening of German nationalism re-proposes that danger which seemed definitively relegated to the past. Our article retraces the themes of the novel and discusses its topicality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Crimen: Journal for Criminal Justice is the property of University of Belgrade, Faculty of Law and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this article, the author analyzes the place and role of prominent Bosnian Muslim religious authority Husein Ðozo in the 13th SS Division, the background and reasons for his joining this division, his views on current issues and challenges of the Second World War, as well as his fate after returning to Yugoslavia and being arrested in 1945. The author points out that Ðozo’s postwar involvement, in his fundamental ideas, does not represent a radical break with the tendencies and views he advocated in the thirties and forties, but rather a continuity of efforts to realize and reflect on the position and perspective of Islam and Muslims in the contemporary world.

The Chetniks of Kosta Pećanac are a military formation that experienced the greatest turning point during the occupation. In the tradition of the Serbian wars of liberation, they played a positive role in the defense of the Serbian people in the territory of southeastern Serbia against the incursions of Albanian and Bulgarian gangs during the first days of the occupation. Towards the German occupation forces they behaved in a hostile but passive manner. However, the emergence of other resistance movements led to an agreement with the Germans at the end of August 1941 and the establishment of open collaboration. This decision led to the separation of some commanders who did not support this agreement, such as General Novaković, Lieutenant Colonel Radojević and Major Keserović. With the suppression of the uprising in western Serbia at the end of 1941, the Pećanac’s Chetniks experienced their apparent peak and became the most numerous military formation after the occupation units. This increase in numbers was illusory, however, as many of the newly arrived Chetniks were in fact still members of General Mihailović’s organization, seeking temporary refuge from German repression. With the creation of the Serbian State Guard, which was to become General Nedić’s main military formation for the pacification of Serbia, Kosta Pećanac’s Chetniks lost their importance. Their unreliability, arbitrariness, indiscipline, disregard for hierarchy, and also open robbery of the population made them an element of disorder rather than order. For these reasons, General Nedić, but much more so the Germans, made attempts to disarm and disband this military formation since the spring of 1942. This process ended in December 1942, when General Nedić announced in the press that they had been disbanded and thanked them for their past service. Kosta Pećanac himself settled in Sokobanja with personal protection. In May 1944, he was liquidated by members of the Ravna Gora organization on the orders of General Mihailović himself.

Copyright of Ayer: Revista de Historia Contemporánea is the property of Asociacion de Historia Contemporanea and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This literary analysis of Sammy Drechsel’s 1955 children’s novel Elf Freunde müßt ihr sein focuses on the author’s construction of 1930s Germany as a Nazi-free realm. With a particular emphasis on Drechsel’s depiction of mass media, this article reveals the Third Reich hidden in this popular autobiographical story about football and friendship. It demonstrates how the novel utilizes football to depoliticize and disguise Hitler’s Germany and ultimately raises the question about the pedagogical opportunities that emerge from a work that is based on silence as a narrative strategy [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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With the adoption of the Basic Law on May 24, 1949 in the Bundestag, West Germany was formed from the three western occupation zones. After the initial denazification in early 1948, the US military government ordered its swift end and limited its own jurisdiction. In parallel with that, a campaign for the release of convicted criminals and the step-by-step takeover of the Nazi functional elite is launched. In the mid-1950s, only twenty percent of the leading positions in the "new" state were held by opponents of the Nazi regime. It was similar in the Ministry of Justice. Prosecutors, judges and lawyers returned to their previous positions. Between 1952 and 1962, between 68 and 77 percent of Germany's judicial staff were Nazi judges. More than 6,656 verdicts were handed down in Allied and German courts, of which 30% were sentenced to six months, 60% to less than one year and 90% to less than five years. Only 15% of all charges and 17% of convictions were for murder (between 17 and 20 million civilians). There is no data on the distribution of the sentence served. Since the beginning of the Cold War, amnesties and individual and mass releases have alternated on a conveyor belt.

Introduction. The article deals with one interesting pattern of research heuristics tackled to create a unified empirical database on forced labor relocations of Rostov Oblast-based Soviet citizens to Nazi Germany. Goals. The source study primarily attempts a consistent reconstruction of individual elements to the ethnic stratification among the O starbeiter (‘Eastern workers’) from the selected region, the former to be facilitated by the current identification of ethnic Kalmyks among such displaced individuals. This specific epistemological perspective has never been addressed by the preceding historiographic tradition, which makes the research practice relevant enough. Materials and methods. The integrated use of traditional archival search methods at the Taganrog Office of Rostov Oblast Archive (Russia) and the City Archive of Lüdenscheid (Germany) made it possible to identify an approximate circle of Kalmyk Soviet citizens forcibly displaced from Taganrog. Results. The paper contributes to a consistent understanding of how Nazi Germany’s forced labor civilian deportations from occupied territories took place, and outlines the phenomenon’s dynamics. The undertaken reconstruction of the ethnic stratification among forcibly displaced Soviet citizens clearly illustrates the rigid universalism of the occupation authorities that were seeking to gain ‘living space’ for ‘true Aryans’. The integrated object for Nazi repressive actions was civilian populations of occupied regions viewed as inferior communities, with no special privileges for any certain ethnic group. A particularly valuable result is that the study has yielded preliminary verifications for a number of ethnic Kalmyks that experienced such forced labor relocations to Nazi Germany.

The book under review is a new monograph by A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova ‘From triumph to disaster: Political and military defeat of France in 1940 and its origins’, published in 2022. In order to separate myth from reality and restore, as far as possible, an accurate picture of those tragic events, the authors of the monograph under review turn to a wide array of sources — ranging from memoirs of direct participants to archival documents from various countries. They also thoroughly examined the works of both classic and contemporary researches on the military and political history of France. A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova provide an exceptionally detailed picture of the main political, social, military, cultural and ideological reasons that provoked the defeat of the French army. The authors debunk the popular myth that this defeat allegedly resulted from a shortage of military equipment. They show instead that it was caused by a complex of factors: instability of the Third Republic’s regime, contradictions between political parties, strategic miscalculations of the military and politicians. The authors stress that the defeat of France, which allowed the Third Reich to take a dominant position in Europe, became an important milestone in the history of international relations. According to the reviewer, A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova rightly conclude that the old France, which once determined the fate of the world, perished in May-June 1940 in the battles of the Meuse and Dunkirk.

The article analyzes the statements expressed by the leaders of the German Security Police in Occupied Serbia regarding their actions and war crimes. Dr. Wilhelm Fuchs, Commander of the Einsatz Group for Yugoslavia (1941), then August Meyszner, Senior SS and police leader in Serbia (1942-1944), and Dr. Emanuel Schäfer, Commander of the Police and Security Service in Serbia (1942-1944), were selected for analysis. The introductory part presents the contextualization of international legislation, which was in force during the Second World War. The development of the German Security Police in occupied Serbia was explained, to understand the positions of Fuchs, Meyszner and Schäfer. In the central part, the article specifically analyzes the phenomenon of crime denial. The analysis of their statements is divided by phenomena – command or personal responsibility, management of camps, abuse of prisoners and reprisals. At the very end, a brief comparison is offered with the statements expressed at the Nuremberg trial by Ernest Kaltenbrunner, a key figure of the Security Police from 1943 to 1945. So, the results of this analysis present an overview of the transfer of mostly shared responsibility. The review offers a look at how they often shifted responsibility to each other, or often denied it without any significant grounds. All of this is complemented by the results of official historiography, as well as a summary of Kaltenbrunner’s defense, which confirms that it was a kind of framework of denial of responsibility after the Second World War.

Recalling the experiences of childhood or adolescence during convulsive times such as the Spanish Civil War or the Third Reich requires a considerable effort. It was not easy for the authors to find the right moment to do so, not only because of their personal circumstances but also because of the context that surrounded them. In both Spain and Germany, after 1939 and 1945 respectively, there were successive stages in which the way of looking at the past diverged. After reviewing some basic concepts, as well as the changing frameworks in each of the two countries, this article analyses the childhood and youthful memoirs mainly of Fernando Fernán-Gómez, Marcel Reich-Ranicki, Tere Medina-Navascués and Ruth Klüger, relating them to those of other authors of their time who have also written autobiographical or autofictional works. Beyond the many differences, it is also possible to find analogies between them, not only in what they tell, but also in their need to wait many decades before they decided to write down what they had experienced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Historia i Polityka is the property of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The subject of this article is Kosta Pećanac's Chetnik formations. At the beginning, the origin of the Chetniks and their role in the interwar period are explained. The main part of the work describes their activities on the territory of occupied Serbia under German occupation in 1941-1942. At the end, their disbandment and fate are described. The work was written on the basis of relevant literature and historical materials, mainly from the Military Archives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Central European Political Studies / Środkowoeuropejskie Studia Polityczne is the property of Faculty of Political Science & Journalism, Adam Mickiewicz University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

'We hear your word afar.' Dutch Protestant reactions to Niemöller before 1945 Niemöller became a well-known man in the Netherlands soon after 1933. But how well did the Dutch really know him? Niemöller never visited the Netherlands before the Second World War. The complicated conflicts in and around the German Protestant Church were hard to comprehend in the Netherlands. Unlike Social Democrats and Communists, who immediately after 1933 showed solidarity with their persecuted party comrades against Hitler, Dutch Protestants initially also saw something good in the attitude of National Socialism and its demand for a 'positive Christianity' and waited. But after his arrest in 1937, Niemöller became a martyr for Christians in the Netherlands from all walks of life. He became a phenomenon behind which the real person disappeared. During the German occupation from May 1940, Niemöller's image in the Netherlands changed again. Was he a staunch defender of the freedom of the church or was he a German nationalist? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article deals with the construction and performance of antisemitism in Nazi children's books. It provides an explorative discourse analysis of Trust No Fox as reported (Bauer, Trau keinem Fuchs auf grüner Heid und keinem Jud bei seinem Eid! Ein Bilderbuch für Gross und Klein, Stürmer-Verlag, Nuremberg, 1936) and The Poisonous Mushroom as reported (Hiemer, Der Giftpilz—ein Stürmerbuch für Jung u. Alt, Stürmer-Verlag, Nuremberg, 1938) through the lens of Critical applied legal linguistics (CrALL). It seeks to elucidate how 'Jewishness' is constructed in the two books, with a view to enhancing our understanding of the intertextual and interdiscursive embeddedness of anti-Semitic rhetoric generally and nomination and predication strategies specifically. To this end, a specialised corpus of 10,002 tokens, 2,345 types and 43 illustrations was compiled. Subsequently XML annotation was applied with the data being parsed into headings, sentences and/or lines. It was found that the books follow a Jewish/non-Jewish dichotomy, consistently referring to breaches of custom, morality, religion and law. Both works purport to provide descriptive accounts of 'Jews as they are,' when, in fact, they generate the normative illusion of 'Jews as they ought to be' according to Nazi ideology. It is suggested to use the insights gained into the anti-Semitic rhetoric of children's books to detect, describe and critique patterns of anti-Semitic rhetoric today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The history of the Nazi camp in Bogusze was initially documented during the Polish People's Republic period, a time marked by limited research opportunities and constraints put on memory policy. The camp's history was altered through the process of remembrance formation instituted by the Polish Society of Fighters for Freedom and Democracy. In the 1960s, a legend emerged surrounding the alleged execution of Italian prisoners of war held at the camp in Bogusze, and a guerrilla ambush of SS soldiers near the town of Ełk. This narrative first appeared in the verification documents of Władysław Świacki and Czesław Nalborski in 1964, gaining prominence through the literary work of Aleksander Omiljanowicz, published in 1965. This legend found its way into numerous scholarly publications, resulting in a distorted representation of the camp's history. The absence of comprehensive source research perpetuated false narratives concerning the period of the camp's existence, its names, size, and the identity and number of its victims. To address this, the author of this article conducted archival and source research to verify various episodes in the camp's history. The camp in Bogusze existed from 1941 to 1944 and experienced a series of name and purpose changes. From June 1941 to June 1942, it was known as Oflag 56 and hosted Soviet POWs; from July 1942 to November 1942, it was still used to detain Soviet POWs under the name Stalag I E; and from 2 November 1942 to 3 January 1943, Polish Jews were held in the camp, which was then referred to as Sammellager. From January 1943 to May 1944, the camp in Bogusze was again used to detain Soviet POWs, this time under the name Stalag I F/Z Prostken. Additionally, the camp, referred to as Stalag I B/PR, was used to hold interned Italians between September 1943 and May 1944. In January and February 1944, Volksdeutsche evacuated from Ukraine were hosted in Lager Bogusche, and Polish residents of frontline villages and towns were held at Stalag 373 from May to December 1944. At its peak, the camp encompassed an area of 30 hectares. Post-war investigations suggest that approximately 25,000 individuals may be buried in the camp's cemetery and execution site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Violence, suffering, commodification, consumption, and the hegemony of one language are various facets of the same phenomenon. The author of the essay evokes the myth of the Tower of Babel as the story of the collapse of the illusion of homogeneous communication, which was to lead to the appropriation of the position of God: the absolute, omnipotent and sole lawgiver. Rejecting fatal homogeneity, therefore, results in the regaining of genuine, individual modes of expression. These issues are linked not only to the history of great wars and totalitarianisms, but also to matters concerning art. In contemporary mass culture, the link between the work of art and the personal experience of its creator is severed. Consequently, it is only the technology of performance that counts, and the artist/subject is increasingly beginning to appear as someone who is unnecessary or even harmful. Mass culture thus excludes spirituality and individuality. On the one hand, it suggests the illusion of understanding; on the other, it cuts off the space of the "indescribable", not covered by the norm of the "linguistic community". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Immediately after the establishment of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, the government of the Protectorate began to enact legislation for the transition to a controlled economy, following the Reich model. Its nature varied, but at least two basic groups can be distinguished: legislation regulating the market and legislation regulating the rationing system. One of the main features controlled economy of the Protectorate was the freezing and control of prices, for which the Supreme Price Office was created. In practice, restrictions on the free sale of food, fuel and other commodities played a crucial role. At the same time, Czech-Moravian associations were created - they managed and controlled the production and distribution of food and other commodities, and some state functions were delegated to them. In course of the implementation of the controlled economy, essential management and control tasks were also delegated to the provincial and district authorities, which also prosecuted offences against maintenance economy and controlled economy. In the course of time, repression took hold, and the German special courts punished with all the vigour and severity they could, even in the case of Protectorate citizens, acts against economic regulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of the article are legal regulations concerning giving and changing names and surnames, analyzed in the context of their role in the formation of society in countries with non-democratic systems, including the creation of a model member of such a society. Administrative law and administration will be shown as a tool serving the current interests of the ruling power. The importance of the name and surname for shaping a person’s personality and strengthening his relationship with a specific group will be explained, and the consequences of changes in this area will be indicated. The article will also highlight and discuss two types of provisions of legal acts regulating the granting and changing of a name and surname. The former make it possible to separate the model members of the new society from its enemies and make it easier to identify and eliminate undesirable people (laws in force in the Third Reich). The second enables the creation of a homogeneous society through the forced assimilation of selected individuals (laws in force in People’s Poland aimed at de-Germanization). The article uses the legal-dogmatic method, consisting in the analysis and interpretation of the texts of legal acts, and the historical and legal method, taking into account the changes of the analyzed legal institution over the years. The work also takes into account the practice of applying the law in the researched area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is a case study concerning the application of the Nazi’s special criminal law in the General Government during wartime, specifically the Juvenile Felons Ordinance of 4 October 1939. A detailed analysis of one criminal proceeding from the moment the police received information about the crime until the execution of the sentence is carried out. The case which was chosen for the present analysis was selected due to its specific character as it involved a double homicide (murder) committed by a juvenile offender whose victims were Jewish. The paper presents the practice of application of criminal law in the General Government, which was characterized by its expedited and simplified nature. It also highlights certain aspects of the law's ambiguity, the defendant's uncertain situation, and a lack of effective possibilities of defense. The development of Nazi criminal law veered towards perpetrator-based criminal law. The criminal law of Nazi Germany ruthlessly sentenced people to death and expanded its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte: Germanistische Abteilung is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The subject of this article is the Serbian State Guard – an armed formation created in occupied Serbia in early March 1942. It arose out of the need of the occupiers and collaborators for a stronger and more organized unit that would more successfully confront the insurgent forces in the territory of Serbia. The primary objective of our research was the reconstruction of its creation, organization, mode of operation, combat activities, and make-up XXX. Created on the basis of the pre-war gendarmerie, in the specific conditions of wartime chaos in Serbia, it retained its primarily police character, although it formed larger and more mobile military units when needed. Finally, the fate of this formation after its inclusion in the ranks of the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland (i.e., the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović) and its going into exile was presented. The source-materials used for this paper are kept mostly in the Military Archive in Belgrade. We have also used documents kept in the Belgrade Historical Archives, the State Archives of Serbia, as well as in the local historical archives in Niš.

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This Introduction to the special issue The White Rose and the Uses of Culture addresses the role of culture and the arts in the history and reception of the Weiße Rose resistance circle. Literature, music, and the visual arts were at the centre of the student resisters' lives: they brought and bound them together, and profoundly influenced their ways of seeing the world. They were also the subject of Professor Kurt Huber's academic research. This essay examines some of the cultural influences on, and interests of, the core members of the resistance group and considers how their cultural engagement might better be understood as an integral part of their individual and collective decision to resist Nazism. It also provides a brief overview of the eight articles in the special issue and sets out some of the key questions they ask about the uses of culture within the White Rose resistance pamphlets and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Only three years after the fall of the Third Reich, the current State of Israel was created in the region of Palestine. Decades earlier, the Zionist movement was gaining strength in Europe, which aimed to reconstitute the region as a "Jewish home", as it had been until the first century when the Jewish diaspora began after expulsion by the Roman Empire. Therefore, the present work aims to answer the following problem question: "what are the impacts of the Holocaust for the creation of the State of Israel and its national identity?". For this purpose, texts evaluated by peers and available on the Google Scholar platform were chosen, in addition to some books by specialized authors. It constitutes, therefore, a bibliographic review article, of a qualitative nature. It is concluded that the Holocaust brought the international community closer to the Zionist cause, inclining the UN to resolve the impasse in Palestine in favor of the creation of a "Jewish State". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Studying the experience of implementing educational and upbringing changes of such a totalitarian state as the Third Reich allows us to look differently at any reformist actions in our country. This experience is especially useful in combination with the study of the activities of the Ministry of Education and Propaganda of the Third Reich. The purpose of the article is to study the place of Nazi propaganda given to men in the “national community”. Applying a socio-cultural approach in combination with a gender-sensitive methodology will allow us to rethink the existence of Germans of the Third Reich through the prism of dominant gender roles in society. As a result of the study, it is found that the concept of creating a new image of “man” helped the Nazis in their quest to achieve an ideal society and “national community”. An intermediate link in this system is the reform of the education and upbringing of the Third Reich as well as the introduction of a number of youth organizations, which aimed to educate young people in obedience in the spirit of the ideas of National Socialism. Participation in these organizations, as well as further service in the army, became the responsibility of the young German. All parts of the education system are undergoing changes: undesirable teachers have been removed from teaching, school and university programs are filled with ideology, and education is carried out in accordance with ideals. The militarized model of masculinity is becoming increasingly important in the state. Such personal qualities as strength, courage, endurance, as well as the willingness to sacrifice their lives for the benefit of the state become the invariable characteristics of a true German.

The monograph highlights the aspects of the international law qualification of the actions and omissions of Germany towards Poland and Poles during World War II. The study tries to prove that in the years 1939–1945 Germany was obliged to observe the norms of international law in its relations with Poland, and especially the non-treaty prohibitions not to initiate aggressive war or to commit the crime of genocide. The review describes the hypothesis and aims of the monograph and evaluates its substance, form, and argumentation.

In the article, the authors deal with the works which were published by the Austrian Germanist Otto Höfler in the Third Reich and which were more or less dedicated to the Germanic warrior Männerbünde. The focus of their analysis is the book The Secret Cult Associations of the Germans (1934), derived from Höfler's habilitation thesis. In their opinion, Höfler expressed his fundamental scientific and ideological views in the second volume of this book, which he most likely wrote in 1934 and which he never published because it was most closely associated with the SA, while it was headed by Ernst Röhm. Therefore, the authors reject both the position that Höfler’s scientific work was in the service of the SS and the opposite position that he remained immune to the ideology of National Socialism. Since it is certain that Höfler was a member of the SA until 1928 and that it is quite possible that he remained connected with the Vienna Gau even after he moved to Uppsala, where he wrote The Secret Cult Associations of the Germans, the “sociological” part of the second volume of this book was, as far as our knowledge of it extends today, anchored in that part of the ideological spectrum of National Socialism. Based on Hefler’s announcements in the first volume of this book, it can be concluded that at that time, for him, the only real “historical continuity” between the old and the modern Germans lay in the warrior Männerbünde, whose violence resembled natural disasters, who brutally dealt with (“distributed justice on”) anyone who happened to be in their way and who had a special cult of the dead.

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Copyright of Studia Iuridica Toruniensia is the property of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Faculty of Law & Administration and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

One can safely state that the «Andreas Schmidt era» (1940-1944) could be considered one of the most difficult periods of the history of the German minority in Romania. From the very beginning, the activity of Nazi controlled organization entitled the German Ethnic Group in Romania and its leader (Andreas Schmidt) was perceived by the Romanian authorities with suspicion and concern. This concern was legitimate since the aggressive policies of the leadership of the German Ethnic Group in Romania let to increasing tensions between the latter, on one side, and the Romanian authorities and the Romanian local population in mixed Romanian-German communities, on the other side. Consequently, the Special Intelligence Service (Serviciul Special de Informaţii, one of the Romanian secret services in the interwar period), the intelligence service of the Romanian army (entitled in Romanian: Secţia a II-a Informaţii a Marelui Stat Major), the General Inspectorate of the Gendarmerie, and the General Directorate of the Police kept under close surveillance the hostile activities of the German Ethnic Group towards the Romanian state. The reports of these aforementioned intelligence institutions emphasized the totalitarian character of the German Ethnic Group in Romania and illustrates how this Nazi controlled organization turned under the leadership of Andreas Schmidt into an effective tool of the Third Reich in South Eastern Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]