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The Mars Exploration Rovers (MER) Spirit and Opportunity have systematically used their Panoramic Camera (Pancam) instruments to estimate the Lambert albedo of the surface across their traverses in Gusev crater and Meridiani Planum. The 360˚ “albedo pan” observations acquired with Pancam's broadband (739 ± 338 nm) L1 filter allow for quantitative estimates of the overall surface albedo and measurements of individual surface features. As of November 2016, over nearly six Mars years of the MER mission, Spirit acquired 20 albedo pans (over 7,730 m of traverse distance) and Opportunity acquired 117 albedo pans (over 42,368 m of traverse distance). For Spirit, this comprises the rover's complete dataset. The ranges of Pancam-derived albedos at Gusev crater (0.14–0.24) and at Meridiani Planum (0.11–0.22, with one anomalously high measurement of 0.27 during the July 2007 global dust storm) are consistent with large-scale albedos of the sites as previously determined by the Viking Orbiter Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM), Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES), MGS Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) and MRO Mars Color Imager (MARCI) instruments. Through comparisons with atmospheric opacity measurements, temporal changes in Pancam albedo values provide insights into interactions between the Martian surface and atmosphere. Pancam observations are also used to “ground truth” measurements from orbit and validate radiometric calibrations, and we present comparisons across the full rover traverses to MOC, CTX, and MRO High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) data. Albedo averages from the same regions observed by Pancam and all three orbital instruments generally agree to within ± 15%. The few instances found where cross-instrument comparisons exceed the estimated instrument calibration uncertainties can be attributed to atmospheric effects and/or differences in viewing geometries.

We analyze thermal emission spectra using the 2001 Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) and the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) to characterize grain size and mineralogical composition of dunes at Hargraves crater, Mars. Thermal inertia and bulk composition of the dunes were compared to inferred provenances from the thermal infrared response of surface constituent materials. We use a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) technique to estimate the bulk amount of mineralogy contributed by each inferred provenance to the dune field composition. An average thermal inertia value of 238+/-17 Jm-2K-1s-0.5 was found for the dunes corresponding to a surface composed of an average effective grain size of ~391+/-172 um. This effective particle size suggests the presence of mostly medium sand-sized materials mixed with fine and coarse grain sands. The dunes are likely comprised of a weakly indurated surface mixed with unconsolidated materials. Compositional analysis specifies that the dunes are comprised of a mixture of feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and relatively low bulk-silica content. Dune materials were likely derived from physical weathering, especially eolian erosion, predominantly from the crater ejecta unit at the crater, mixed with a small amount from the crater floor and crater rim and wall lithologies - indicating the dune materials were likely sourced locally.

Following the most recent updates to the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) daytime and nighttime infrared global mosaics, a colorized global map was produced that combines the thermophysical information from the nighttime infrared global mosaic with the morphologic context of the daytime infrared global mosaic. During the validation of this map, large numbers of low thermal inertia ejecta deposits surrounding small young impact craters were observed. A near-global survey (60°N-60°S) identified 4,024 of these low thermal inertia ejecta deposits, which were then categorized based on their apparent state of degradation. Mapping their locations revealed that they occur almost exclusively in regions with intermediate-to-high thermal inertias, with distinct clusters in northern Terra Sirenum, Solis Planum and southwestern Daedalia Planum. High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images show that the thermophysically distinct facies of the deposits are well correlated with the estimated average ejecta grain sizes, which decrease with radial distance from the crater. Comparisons with recent primary impact craters and secondary impact craters surrounding Zunil Crater show that the low thermal inertia ejecta deposits very closely resemble the secondary craters, but not the primary craters. We conclude that the low thermal inertia ejecta deposits are secondary impact crater ejecta deposits, many of which originated from the rayed crater primary impact events, and are both well-preserved and easily identifiable due to the absence of dust cover and aeolian modification that would otherwise reduce the thermal contrast between the ejecta facies and the surrounding terrain.

The composition of two dune fields, Ogygis Undae and the NE–SW trending dune field in Gale crater (the “Bagnold Dune Field” and “Western Dune Field”), were analyzed using thermal emission spectra from the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) and the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS). The Gale crater dune field was used as a baseline as other orbital compositional analyses have been conducted, and in situ sampling results will soon be available. Results from unmixing thermal emission spectra showed a spatial variation between feldspar mineral abundances and pyroxene mineral abundances in Ogygis Undae. Other datasets, including nighttime thermal inertia values, also showed variation throughout the dune field. One explanation proposed for this variation is a bimodal distribution of two sand populations. This distribution is seen in some terrestrial dune fields. The two dune fields varied in both mineral types present and in uniformity of composition. These differences point to different source lithologies and different distances travelled from source material. Examining these differences further will allow for a greater understanding of aeolian processes on Mars.

Thermal emission imaging system (THEMIS) and Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) spectral datasets were used to identify high bulk SiO 2 and hydrated compositions throughout the Nilosyrtis Mensae region. Four isolated locations were identified across the region showing short wavelength silicate absorptions within the 8–12 μm spectral region, indicating surfaces dominated by high Si phases. Much more extensive exposures of hydrated compositions are present throughout the region, indicated by a spectral absorption near 1.9 μm in CRISM data. Although limited in spatial coverage, detailed spectral observations indicate that the hydrated materials contain Fe/Mg-smectites and hydrated silica along with minor exposures of Mg-carbonates and an unidentified hydrated phase. The high SiO 2 and hydrated materials are present in layered sediments near the base of topographic scarps at the hemispheric dichotomy boundary, typically near or within low albedo sand deposits. The source of the high SiO 2 and hydrated materials appears to be from groundwater discharge from Nili Fossae and Syrtis Major to the south, where there is evidence for extensive aqueous alteration of the subsurface. Although discontinuous, the exposures of high SiO 2 and hydrated materials span a wide area and are present in a similar geomorphological context to previously identified deposits in western Hellas Basin. These regional deposits may reflect aqueous conditions and alteration within the adjacent crust of the martian highlands.

The Nili Fossae region of Mars contains some of the most mineralogically diverse bedrock on the planet. Previous studies have established three main stratigraphic units in the region: a phyllosilicate-bearing basement rock, a variably altered olivine-rich basalt, and a capping rock. Here, we present evidence for the localized alteration of the northeast Nili Fossae capping unit, previously considered to be unaltered. Both near-infrared and thermal-infrared spectral datasets were analyzed, including the application of a method for determining the relative abundance of bulk-silica (SiO 2 ) over surfaces using thermal emission imaging system (THEMIS) images. Elevated bulk-silica exposures are present on surfaces previously defined as unaltered capping rock. Given the lack of spectral evidence for phyllosilicate, hydrated silica, or quartz phases coincident with the newly detected exposures—the elevated bulk-silica may have formed under a number of aqueous scenarios, including as a product of the carbonation of the underlying olivine-rich basalt under moderate water: rock scenarios and temperatures. Regardless of formation mechanism, the detection of elevated bulk-silica exposures in the Nili Fossae capping unit extends the history of aqueous activity in the region to include all three of the main stratigraphic units.

Images of Mars taken by spacecraft in the last few decades indicate that the landscape has changed and that current processes are continuously changing the surface. The modifications of the landscape are caused by exogenic processes including eolian activity, mass movement, the growth and retreat of the polar caps, glacial processes and crater-forming impacts. In particular the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) on board Mars Express (MEx) and the Context Camera (CTX) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) cover large areas at high resolution and thus are particularly well-suited to detect the extent and origin of surface changes on Mars. Multi-temporal observations of variable features on Mars became possible by the increasing number of repeated image acquisitions of the same surface areas. To support the investigation of surface changes that represents a key element in martian research, we developed MUTED, the “Multi-Temporal Database of Planetary Image Data”, which is a tool for the identification of the spatial and multi-temporal coverage of planetary image data from Mars. Using MUTED, scientists are able to identify the location, number, and time range of acquisitions of overlapping images from, for example, HRSC and CTX. MUTED also includes images from other planetary datasets such as those of the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE). The database supports the identification and analysis of surface changes and short-lived surface processes on Mars based on fast automatic planetary image database queries. From the multi-temporal planetary image database and investigations based on multi-temporal observations we will better understand the interactions between the surface of Mars and external forces, including the atmosphere. MUTED is available for the planetary scientific community via the webpage of the Institut fur Planetologie (IfP) Muenster.

Layered ejecta craters on Mars have been interpreted to indicate the presence of volatiles in the substrate, making them important targets for the investigation of sites of astrobiological significance. If the ejecta are associated with the presence of water in the substratum, specific surface grain size trends are expected. In this study we explore the distribution of grain sizes in the layered ejecta of impact craters located in Chryse Planitia, using Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) thermal infrared data. Ejecta grain size trends, in conjunction with ejecta mobility and lobateness values, are applied to assess the degree of surface flow of the ejecta, and in turn to constrain the plausible volatile abundance, cohesion, and fine particle content of the target materials. Craters with a larger fraction of small grain sizes in their ejecta showed greater ejecta mobility and lobateness, consistent with a water-rich and/or a low-cohesion target. Craters displaying decreasing grain size with increasing radius had smaller diameters and lower ejecta mobility and lobateness, indicating only a minimal component of surface ejecta flow. Ejecta grain size trends varied with crater diameter, from which the presence of vertical compositional stratigraphy in Chryse Planitia is inferred and interpreted. Our observations are synthesized into a number of plausible geologic scenarios for Chryse Planitia.

Mars landed and orbiter missions have instrumentation capable of detecting oxychlorine phases (e.g. perchlorate, chlorate) on the surface. Perchlorate (~0.6 wt%) was first detected by the Wet Chemistry Laboratory in the surface material at the Phoenix Mars Landing site. Subsequent analyses by the Thermal Evolved Gas Analyser aboard the same lander detected an oxygen release (~465°C) consistent with the thermal decomposition of perchlorate. Recent thermal analysis by the Mars Science Laboratory's Sample Analysis at Mars instrument has also indicated the presence of oxychlorine phases (up to 1.2 wt%) in Gale Crater materials. Despite being at detectable concentrations, the Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) X-ray diffractometer has not detected oxychlorine phases. This suggests that Gale Crater oxychlorine may exist as poorly crystalline phases or that perchlorate/chlorate mixtures exist, so that individual oxychlorine concentrations are below CheMin detection limits (~1 wt%). Although not initially designed to detect oxychlorine phases, reinterpretation of Viking Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometer data also suggest that oxychlorine phases are present in the Viking surface materials. Remote near-infrared spectral analyses by the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument indicate that at least some martian recurring slope lineae (RSL) have spectral signatures consistent with the presence of hydrated perchlorates or chlorates during the seasons when RSL are most extensive. Despite the thermal emission spectrometer, Thermal Emission Imaging System, Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l'Eau, les Glaces et l'Activité and CRISM detection of hundreds of anhydrous chloride (~10–25 vol%) deposits, expected associated oxychlorine phases (>5–10 vol%) have not been detected. Total Cl and oxychlorine data sets from the Phoenix Lander and the Mars Science Laboratory missions could be used to develop oxychlorine versus total Cl correlations, which may constrain oxychlorine concentrations at other locations on Mars by using total Cl determined by other missions (e.g. Viking, Pathfinder, MER and Odyssey). Development of microfluidic or ‘lab-on-a-chip’ instrumentation has the potential to be the next generation analytical capability used to identify and quantify individual oxychlorine species on future landed robotic missions to Mars.

Chloride salt-bearing deposits on Mars were discovered using the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) and have been characterized by both mid-infrared (MIR) and visible-to-near-infrared (VNIR) remote sensing instruments. The chloride salt-bearing deposits exhibit a blue slope at MIR wavelengths and a featureless red slope at VNIR wavelengths. These deposits also lack strong 3 µm bands in VNIR spectra, indicating that they are desiccated compared to the surrounding regolith. The lack of VNIR spectral features suggests that an anhydrous chloride salt, the most likely of which is halite, is responsible for the observed spectral slope. In this work, we use laboratory spectra and a hybrid T-matrix/Hapke light scattering model to constrain the particle sizes and salt abundances of the Martian chloride salt-bearing deposits. Our work shows that the two broad spectral classes of these deposits observed by THEMIS can be explained by a difference in the particle size of the admixed silicate regolith. In all cases, chloride salt abundances of 10–25% are required to match the THEMIS data. The chloride salt abundances determined in this work suggest deposition in a lacustrine/playa setting or in association with late-stage groundwater upwelling.

In our earlier paper, we have implemented an automated atmospheric compensation algorithm for Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) images. Moreover, we also implemented a pansharpening approach to fusing THEMIS and Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) images. Our objective in this paper is to investigate the performance of mineral abundance estimation using the original TES images and pansharpened TES images. To achieve the above objective, we focus on the Ares Vallis area on Mars, which has been well studied in the literature. Comparing our preliminary results with published results in the literature, we observed that the general trend is similar, but some concentration estimates are different. Due to lack of ground truth, it is hard to judge which results are better at this point. Nevertheless, the results are encouraging and more studies are needed in the future.

An algorithm to automatically delineate the contour of impact craters detected on remotely sensed images from the surface of Mars is presented in this letter. It processes the crater images in polar coordinates and is constituted by two main steps: edge enhancement , which is constructing an edge map based upon the intensity transitions along radial lines intersecting the center of the crater, and crater delineation , which is determining an optimal path from the minimization of an energy functional by Dynamic Programming. We obtained the performance of 96% of correct crater delineations evaluated in a data set of 1045 craters depicted from High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) and Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) images (resolutions of 0.25–0.50 and 100 m/pixel, respectively) exhibiting a large diversity of terrains, crater dimensions, and degradations.

We combine observations of surface morphology, topography, subsurface stratigraphy, and near surface clouds with mesoscale simulations of south polar winds and temperature to investigate processes governing the evolution of spiral troughs on the South Pole of Mars. In general we find that the south polar troughs are cyclic steps that all formed during an erosional period, contrary to the troughs at the North Pole, which are constructional features. The Shallow Radar instrument (SHARAD) onboard Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter detects subsurface stratigraphy indicating relatively recent accumulation that occurred post trough formation in many locations. Using optical instruments, especially the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), we find low altitude trough clouds in over 500 images spanning 6 Mars years. The locations of detected clouds correspond to where recent accumulation is detected by SHARAD, and offers clues about surface evolution. The clouds migrate by season, moving poleward from 71° S at ~ L s 200° until L s 318°, when the last cloud is detected. Our atmospheric simulations find that the fastest winds on the pole are found roughly near the external boundary of the seasonal CO 2 ice cap. Thus, we find that the migration of clouds (and katabatic jumps) corresponds spatially to the retreat of the CO 2 seasonal ice as detected by Titus (2005) and that trough morphology, through recent accumulation, is integrally related to this seasonal retreat.

More than 100 pit craters in the Tharsis region of Mars exhibit morphologies, diameters, and thermal behaviors that diverge from the much larger bowl-shaped pit craters that occur in most regions across Mars. These Atypical Pit Craters (APCs) generally have sharp and distinct rims, vertical or overhanging walls that extend down to their floors, surface diameters of ~50–350 m, and high depth to diameter (d/D) ratios that are usually greater than 0.3 (which is an upper range value for impacts and bowl-shaped pit craters) and can exceed values of 1.8. Observations by the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) show that APC floor temperatures are warmer at night and fluctuate with much lower diurnal amplitudes than nearby surfaces or adjacent bowl-shaped pit craters. Kīlauea volcano, Hawai'i, hosts pit craters that formed through subsurface collapse into active volcanic dikes, resulting in pits that can appear morphologically analogous to either APCs or bowl-shaped pit craters. Partially drained dikes are sometimes exposed within the lower walls and floors of these terrestrial APC analogs and can form extensive cave systems with unique microclimates. Similar caves in Martian pit craters are of great interest for astrobiology. This study uses new observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) and Context Camera to refine previous work where seven APCs were described from lower resolution THEMIS visible wavelength observations. Here we identify locations of 115 APCs, map their distribution across the Tharsis region, characterize their internal morphologies with high-resolution observations, and discuss possible formation mechanisms.

Kilometer-scale pits are nested in the centers of many impact craters on Mars as well as on icy satellites. They have been inferred to form in the presence of a water–ice rich substrate; however, the process(es) responsible for their formation is still debated. Previous models invoke origins by either explosive excavation of potentially water-bearing crustal material, or by subsurface drainage of meltwater and/or collapse. If explosive excavation forms central pits, pit-derived ejecta should be draped around the pits, whereas internal collapse should not deposit significant material outside pit rims. Using visible wavelength images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) and High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instruments and thermal infrared images from the Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) instrument, we conducted a survey to characterize, in detail, the global population of central pits in impact craters ⩾10 km in diameter. We specifically examined the morphology and thermophysical characteristics of the pits for evidence of pit ejecta. Our analysis of thermal images suggests that coarse-grained materials are distributed proximally around many central pits on the floors of their host craters. The decrease in average grain size with distance from pit rims is consistent with pit-derived ejecta. These observations and interpretations better support an explosive origin for central pits on Mars than they do an origin of subsurface meltwater drainage and collapse of the overlying substrate. A major weakness to previous explosive central pit formation models is the inability for them to form pits late enough in the impact process to be preserved. To address this, we present an alternative “melt contact model” where a central uplift brings ice-bearing substrate into contact with impact melt to generate steam explosions and excavate central pits during the impact modification stage. Theoretical calculations show that more than enough thermal energy is available via impact melt from the host crater to form central pits by steam explosions, and such explosions would require only a modest amount (2–6% by volume) of uplifted water–ice. We therefore propose that central pits on Mars could have formed explosively by the interaction of impact melt and subsurface water–ice.

The formation mechanism of layered ejecta craters on Mars has remained a topic of intense debate since their discovery. In this study, we perform a global morphological analysis of Martian layered ejecta craters using Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) images and Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data. The study focuses on the ejecta morphologies and well-defined distal rampart characteristics associated with 9945 layered ejecta craters with a diameter greater than 1.5 km distributed across the entire Martian surface. Data analysis based on the new database provides new information on the distribution and morphological details of the three major layered ejecta morphologies (single layer ejecta [SLE], double layer ejecta [DLE], and multiple layer ejecta [MLE]). Global analysis is applied to the latitudinal distribution of characteristic parameters, including the ejecta mobility, lobateness values, and onset diameter. Our survey of the distribution and characteristics of layered ejecta craters reveals that strong correlations exist between ejecta mobility and latitude, and there is a latitudinal dependence of onset diameter. Our study of Martian layered ejecta craters provides more detailed information and insights of a connection between the layered ejecta morphologies and the subsurface volatiles.

The small crater Airy-0 was selected from Mariner 9 images to be the reference for the Mars prime meridian. Initial analyses in the year 2000 tied Viking Orbiter and Mars Orbiter Camera images of Airy-0 to the evolving Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter global digital terrain model to update the location of Airy-0. Based upon this tie and radiometric tracking of landers/rovers from Earth, new expressions for the Mars spin axis direction, spin rate, and prime meridian epoch value were produced to define the orientation of the Martian surface in inertial space over time. Since the Mars Global Surveyor mission and Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter global digital terrain model were completed some time ago, a more exhaustive study has been performed to determine the accuracy of the Airy-0 location and orientation of Mars at the standard epoch. Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) IR image cubes of the Airy and Gale crater regions were tied to the global terrain grid using precision stereo photogrammetric image processing techniques. The Airy-0 location was determined to be about 0.001° east of its predicted location using the currently defined International Astronomical Union (IAU) prime meridian location. Information on this new location and how it was derived will be provided to the NASA Mars Exploration Program Geodesy and Cartography Working Group for their assessment. This NASA group will make a recommendation to the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements to update the expression for the Mars spin axis direction, spin rate, and prime meridian location.

In this work, we compare the thermophysical properties and particle sizes derived from the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover's Ground Temperature Sensor (GTS) of the Bagnold dunes, specifically Namib dune, to those derived orbitally from Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), ultimately linking these measurements to ground-truth particle sizes determined from Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI) images. In general, we find that all three datasets report consistent particle sizes for the Bagnold dunes (~110-350 microns, and are within measurement and model uncertainties), indicating that particle sizes of homogeneous materials determined from orbit are reliable. Furthermore, we examine the effects of two physical characteristics that could influence the modeled thermal inertia and particle sizes, including: 1) fine-scale (cm-m scale) ripples, and 2) thin layering of indurated/armored materials. To first order, we find small scale ripples and thin (approximately centimeter scale) layers do not significantly affect the determination of bulk thermal inertia from orbital thermal data determined from a single nighttime temperature. Modeling of a layer of coarse or indurated material reveals that a thin layer (< ~5 mm; similar to what was observed by the Curiosity rover) would not significantly change the observed thermal properties of the surface and would be dominated by the properties of the underlying material. Thermal inertia and grain sizes of relatively homogeneous materials derived from nighttime orbital data should be considered as reliable, as long as there are not significant sub-pixel anisothermality effects (e.g. lateral mixing of multiple thermophysically distinct materials)., submitted to the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets

The selection of the Discovery Program InSight landing site took over four years from initial identification of possible areas that met engineering constraints, to downselection via targeted data from orbiters (especially Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) and High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images), to selection and certification via sophisticated entry, descent and landing (EDL) simulations. Constraints on elevation ( ${\leq}{-}2.5\ \mbox{km}$ for sufficient atmosphere to slow the lander), latitude (initially 15°S–5°N and later 3°N–5°N for solar power and thermal management of the spacecraft), ellipse size (130 km by 27 km from ballistic entry and descent), and a load bearing surface without thick deposits of dust, severely limited acceptable areas to western Elysium Planitia. Within this area, 16 prospective ellipses were identified, which lie ∼600 km north of the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover. Mapping of terrains in rapidly acquired CTX images identified especially benign smooth terrain and led to the downselection to four northern ellipses. Acquisition of nearly continuous HiRISE, additional Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) images, along with radar data confirmed that ellipse E9 met all landing site constraints: with slopes

This paper presents a novel approach to fusing Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) and Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) satellite images, aiming to improve Mars surface characterization performance from orbit. Our approach includes proven registration and advanced pansharpening algorithms developed by us and others. Preliminary experiments show that the fusion approach is highly promising despite the extremely high resolution difference of THEMIS and TES (30 to 1). We also observed some potential issues that require further research.

Southern mid-latitude (SML) recurring slope lineae (RSL) are narrow (0.5–5 m) dark albedo features that emanate from bedrock and incrementally lengthen down steep slopes that preferentially face the equator. We observe that SML RSL begin lengthening prior to southern summer at a solar longitude (Ls) of 245° ± 11° when Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES)-derived near-maximum surface temperatures are 296 ± 5 K and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) – and Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS)-derived mid-afternoon surface temperatures are >273 K. SML RSL continue to lengthen for 104 ± 38 sols with an average near-maximum surface temperature of 298 ± 5 K. The SML RSL then stop lengthening at Ls = 314° ± 12° when mid-afternoon surface temperatures drop below 273 K. They remain dark for another 116 ± 41 sols (until Ls = 16° ± 14°) as surface temperatures continue to fall. Although the RSL recharge mechanism remains unknown, our observation that the vast majority of RSL lengthen only when mid-afternoon surface temperatures are >273 K supports the hypothesis that they are formed by shallow subsurface liquid water flows without significant freezing-point depression. The number and length of RSL at multiple sites increased dramatically following the Mars Year 28 globe-encircling dust storm. We interpret this increase to be due to warmer subsurface temperatures created by a dust-laden greenhouse effect that may be unique to the southern mid-latitudes near Ls = 270°. Therefore SML RSL flow is quite sensitive to ground temperature and may only occur under favorable orbital parameters when mean insolation during the RSL lengthening season is above that of the current southern mid-latitude mean insolation value. This value is currently at a peak that has not been attained for the last ∼100 ka. Meanwhile, the RSL-poor northern mid-latitude mean insolation is near a minimum and has a value 27% lower than the southern value. If SML RSL are indeed formed by shallow subsurface freshwater flows, then they may be some of the best locations on Mars to explore for extant life.

We fully resolve a long-standing thermal discrepancy concerning the north polar erg of Mars. Several recent studies have shown that the erg’s thermal properties are consistent with normal basaltic sand overlying shallow ground ice or ice-cemented sand. Our findings bolster that conclusion by thoroughly characterizing the thermal behavior of the erg, demonstrating that other likely forms of physical heterogeneity play only a minor role, and obviating the need to invoke exotic materials. Thermal inertia as calculated from orbital temperature observations of the dunes has previously been found to be more consistent with dust-sized materials than with sand. Since theory and laboratory data show that dunes will only form out of sand-sized particles, exotic sand-sized agglomerations of dust have been invoked to explain the low values of thermal inertia. However, the polar dunes exhibit the same darker appearance and color as that of dunes found elsewhere on the planet that have thermal inertia consistent with normal sand-sized basaltic grains, whereas Martian dust deposits are generally lighter and redder. The alternative explanation for the discrepancy as a thermal effect of a shallow ice table is supported by our analysis of observations from the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer and the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System and by forward modeling of physical heterogeneity. In addition, our results exclude a uniform composition of dark dust-sized materials, and they show that the thermal effects of the dune slopes and bright interdune materials evident in high-resolution images cannot account for the erg’s thermal behavior.

As the seasonal CO_2 ice polar caps of Mars retreat during spring, dark spots appear on the ice in some specific regions. These features are thought to result from basal sublimation of the transparent CO_2 ice followed by ejection of regolith-type material, which then covers the ice. We have used Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) reflectance data, Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) visible images, and THEMIS-derived temperature retrievals along with a thermal numerical model to constrain the physical and compositional characteristics of the seasonal cap for several areas exhibiting dark spots at both high spatial and temporal resolutions. Data analysis suggests an active period of material ejection (before solar longitude (Ls) 200), accumulation around the ejection points, and spreading of part of the ejected material over the whole area, followed by a period where no significant amount of material is ejected, followed by complete defrosting (≈ Ls 245). Dark material thickness on top of the CO_2 ice is estimated to range from a few hundreds of microns to a few millimeters in the warmest spots, based on numerical modeling combined with the observed temperature evolution. The nature of the venting process and the amount of material that is moved lead to the conclusion that it could have an important impact on the surface physical properties.

[1] We have developed a new method (least residual iterative spectral mixture analysis (LRISMA)) to semiquantitatively determine major rock-forming minerals (feldspar, pyroxene, olivine, high-silica phases, and quartz) with multispectral thermal infrared data. Sublibraries of minerals are generated from a master library of minerals based on prior knowledge to produce a suite of realistic mineral end-member combinations to fit the target spectra. Mineral abundances that correspond to the least root-mean-square errors (best fit) generally agree best with previous petrographic studies of laboratory-measured rock samples and thermal infrared hyperspectral analysis of materials on the surface of Mars, given the greatly reduced spectral range and resolution of Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) spectra. The accuracy and reproducibility of LRISMA is ~4–16% and ~5–20%, respectively, while the accuracy of petrographic and previous hyperspectral studies is ~5–15%. LRISMA can be applied to semiquantitatively refine the bulk surface mineralogy of small-scale (~1 km2) geologic features with high-quality THEMIS spectral data (high surface temperature: >260 K, low atmospheric opacity: total ice

We explore the effects of spatial resolution on the detectability of phyllosilicates in the thermal infrared dataset from the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES). Data from the Mars Odyssey THermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) instrument is used to resolve spatial resolution driven discrepancies between detection of phyllosilicates in the infrared and visible/near-infrared wavelength range. The 100-m/pixel spatial resolution offered by THEMIS, even with its limited spectral resolution, significantly improves the likelihood of phyllosilicate detection. Furthermore, spectral unit mapping techniques provide the first phyllosilicate abundance maps of the Mawrth Vallis phyllosilicate-bearing units, which indicate phyllosilicate abundances of >50% with heterogeneous spatial distributions. Derived abundances are used to evaluate the proposed formation mechanisms for phyllosilicates in this region and are found to be consistent with intermediate weathering of mafic primary material.

The primary objective of the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) experiment, which has been in orbit at Mars since early 2002, is to identify minerals associated with hydrothermal and subaqueous environments. Data from THEMIS have supported the presence of clays, silica-rich deposits, and chlorides but has not before provided definitive evidence for the presence of sulfates. This is an especially puzzling result given that sulfates have been extensively identified with other instruments at Mars. If present, sufficiently exposed, and in high enough abundances, such minerals should be detectable in orbital thermal infrared spectra at the resolution of THEMIS. The extended mission proposal for THEMIS on Mars Odyssey suggests that the detection of all minerals may be enhanced by observing at an earlier time of day and thus at warmer temperatures. Therefore, in 2009, Odyssey moved to an earlier orbit time. Here, we examine THEMIS data collected when the earlier orbit time coincided with the Martian local (southern) late summer (Ls = 270) for Columbus crater where Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) data have detected a number of aqueous minerals. Some of the warmest THEMIS images show evidence for aqueous minerals, although not in the same locations where CRISM finds the highest concentrations. Several factors contribute to this result, including differences in the diurnal temperature curve and levels of induration and particle size. For THEMIS, earlier time-of-day and proper seasonal observations combine to provide warm surface temperatures and ideal low atmospheric opacity that significantly increases the ability to definitively identify low spectral contrast aqueous minerals at the surface of Mars.

Phyllosilicate is a principal form of hydrous minerals on the martian surface. It's also an indicative mineral in comparing different sediments and degree of aqueous alteration. Shortwave infrared (SWIR) and thermal infrared (TIR) spectral bands have distinct spectral response to the mineral groups and ions. However, combining SWIR and TIR to recognize phyllosilicate has been rarely studied. Based on the USGS spectral library, facing sensors of Mars: Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars(CRISM) and Thermal Emission Imaging System(THEMIS), we conducted the research on the mechanis m of the spectral response of phyllosilicate, and established the SWIR and TIR identification model respectively, then combined the SWIR and TIR spectral features to build the combined recognition model of phyllosilicate by Fisher discriminant analysis. The results show that the identification accuracy of the combined model is the highest, which can correctly classify 90.6% of the mineral samples and improve the identification accuracy of phyllosilicate effectively.

Background: Planum Boreum, the north polar plateau of Mars, displays four extensive low-albedo regions covered with widespread sedimentary deposits that are thick enough to partly or completely suppress the signature of the residual water ice that forms the uppermost zone of the polar layered deposits. These sedimentary deposits appear to have a source primarily in a buried sedimentary layer preferentially exposed along the walls and floors of some polar troughs. The deposits extend and drape over circum-polar dunes. Methods: The data analyses in this research were conducted with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) mapping tools. The following data sets have been used: (1) Mars Odyssey (MO) Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) summer north polar visible light mosaics at 18 m/pixel and 32 m/pixel, as well as 18 m/pixel visible multiband images (THEMIS mosaic provided by P. H. Christensen and the THEMIS Team, Arizona State U.), (2) Mars Express (MEX) High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) images at 10 m/pixel, (3) Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) narrow-angle (NA; >1.4 m/pixel) and a wide-angle image mosaic, 64 pixels/degree, (4) Mars Reconaissance Orbiter (MRO) Hight Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera images at resolutions that range from 31.8 cm/pixel (with 1x1 binning) to 63.5 cm/pixel (with 2x2 binning), (5) MGS Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) 512 pixels/degree digital elevation models, and (6) MEX OMEGA Vis/IR imaging spectrometer. False color maps have been derived from OMEGA data in which all three color planes are proportional to albedo (0.1: level 0, 0.45: level 255). The red plane scales inversely with the fraction of the area covered by ice, derived from the band strength at 1.5 μm (factor of 0 for 30% fractional ice coverage within the pixel, factor of 1 for ice-free pixels). The H₂O ice spectral signatures have been observed by OMEGA in November 2004, during early northern summer (Ls 109° to 114°). The incidence at the time of observations was nearly optimal for such latitude regions (57.6°). Sampling on the ground was 1.7 to 2 km. Conclusion: The most recent history of the north polar plateau of Mars includes highly dynamic sedimentary processes involving large-scale wind-driven mass transfer from Planum Boreum towards its periphery. The proposed polar processes involved: (I) retreat along undulations within upper layered deposits (ULD), thereby exposing underlying dark sedimentary deposits, (II) mobilization of these deposits to form extensive dark mantles, which are water-ice free and that terminate in circum-polar terrains, and (III) complete removal of these deposits leading to the exhumation of pre-existing troughs.

We present a methodology to remove atmospheric effects from High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment data in order to calculate the albedo of the martian surface in the near infrared (0.8–1 μ m), red (0.55–0.85 μ m), and blue green (0.4–0.6 μ m) spectral bands. The application of our methodology results in corrections of up to 20 % in the albedo measured by the satellite. Time evolution of the surface albedo is used to study dark spots observed in Richardson Crater, on Mars south polar region. These dark spots form in late winter and vanish in late spring. They are of high scientific interest because they appear to be caused by the flow of granular material, liquid, or a combination of both. Besides images, the following data are used as ancillary information in our study: dust optical depth derived from measurements by the Thermal Emission Imaging System, the detection of the presence of either CO2 ice or H2O ice by the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometers for Mars, surface pressure and temperature values derived from measurements by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer, and finally kinetic calculations and numerical modeling. Our results support the gas venting hypothesis previously proposed to explain the formation of dark spots. We show that the ejection of CO2 gas and accompanying loose material through cracks in the translucent CO2 ice layer, suggested by this hypothesis, is consistent with the time evolution of the surface albedo. Once dark spots form, surface albedo values indicate that they have three distinct areas: a dark core at their center, a brighter zone surrounding them (referred to as bright halo by various authors), and an optically distinct intermediate area separating the dark core from the bright halo. Our analysis indicates that these three areas are physically distinct and that the deposition and sublimation of CO2 and H2O ices are necessary to explain the time evolution of the albedo of the dark spots and the areas surrounding them. However, these conventional mechanisms cannot explain some observed features such as an unexpected decrease and subsequent increase in albedo while the surface temperature raises continuously. We hypothesize that this unexpected decrease in albedo is caused by brine formation and propose a mechanism to explain it. A new ejection of dark material or dust deposition could also explain this decrease. However, we show that these processes are unlikely to be the cause of the albedo decrease. The hypothesis that the dark spots observed in Richardson Crater contain liquid brines can be tested with laboratory experiments or in situ measurements by future landers.

This paper presents newly discovered candidate cave entrances into Martian near-surface lava tubes, volcano-tectonic fracture systems, and pit craters and describes their characteristics and exploration possibilities. These candidates are all collapse features that occur either intermittently along laterally continuous trench-like depressions or in the floors of sheer-walled atypical pit craters. As viewed from orbit, locations of most candidates are visibly consistent with known terrestrial features such as tube-fed lava flows, volcano-tectonic fractures, and pit craters, each of which forms by mechanisms that can produce caves. Although we cannot determine subsurface extents of the Martian features discussed here, some may continue unimpeded for many kilometers if terrestrial examples are indeed analogous. The features presented here were identified in images acquired by the Mars Odyssey's Thermal Emission Imaging System visible- wavelength camera, and by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's Context Camera. Select candidates have since been targeted by the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experi- ment. Martian caves are promising potential sites for future human habitation and astrobiology investigations; understanding their characteristics is critical for long-term mission planning and for developing the necessary exploration technologies.

High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) imagery and digital elevation models of the Candor Chasma region of Valles Marineris, Mars, reveal prominent and distinctive positive-relief knobs amidst light-toned layers. Three classifications of knobs, Types 1, 2, and 3, are distinguished from a combination of HiRISE and Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) images based on physical expressions (geometries, spatial relationships), and spectral data from Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM). Type 1 knobs are abundant, concentrated, topographically resistant features with their highest frequency in West Candor, which have consistent stratigraphic correlations of the peak altitude (height). These Type 1 knobs could be erosional remnants of a simple dissected terrain, possibly derived from a more continuous, resistant, capping layer of pre-existing material diagenetically altered through recrystallization or cementation. Types 2 and 3 knobs are not linked to a single stratigraphic layer and are generally solitary to isolated, with variable heights. Type 3 are the largest knobs at nearly an order of magnitude larger than Type 1 knobs. The variable sizes and occasional pits on the tops of Type 2 and 3 knobs suggest a different origin, possibly related to more developed erosion, preferential cementation, or textural differences from sediment/water injection or intrusion, or from a buried impact crater. Enhanced color HiRISE images show a brown coloration of the knob peak crests that is attributable to processing and photometric effects; CRISM data do not show any detectable spectral differences between the knobs and the host rock layers, other than albedo. These intriguing knobs hold important clues to deducing relative rock properties, timing of events, and weathering conditions of Mars history.

Data from the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) and the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) instruments are used to assess the mineralogic and dust cover characteristics of landing regions proposed for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission. Candidate regions examined in this study are Eberswalde crater, Gale crater, Holden crater, Mawrth Vallis, Miyamoto crater, Nili Fossae Trough, and south Meridiani Planum. Compositional units identified in each region from TES and THEMIS data are distinguished by variations in hematite, olivine, pyroxene and high-silica phase abundance, whereas no units are distinguished by elevated phyllosilicate or sulfate abundance. Though phyllosilicate minerals have been identified in all sites using near-infrared observations, these minerals are not unambiguously detected using either TES spectral index or deconvolution analysis methods. For some of the sites, small phyllosilicate outcrop sizes relative to the TES field of view likely hinder phyllosilicate mineral detection. Porous texture and/or small particle size ( 15%, possibly up to ∼40%) of a high-silica phase such as amorphous silica or zeolite. High-silica phase abundance over phyllosilicate-bearing surfaces in Mawrth Vallis is higher than that of surrounding surfaces by 10–15%. With the exception of these high-silica surfaces in Mawrth Vallis, regions examined in this study exhibit similar bulk mineralogical compositions to that of most low-albedo regions on Mars; the MSL scientific payload will thus be able to provide important information on surface materials typical of low-albedo regions in addition to investigating the origin of phyllosilicate and/or sulfate deposits. With the exception of Gale crater, all of the landing sites have relatively low dust cover compared to classic high-albedo regions (Tharsis, Arabia and Elysium) and to previous landing sites in Gusev Crater, Utopia Planitia, and Chryse Planitia.

Slopes are present in martian apparent surface emissivity observations collected by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) and the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS). These slopes are attributed to misrepresenting the surface temperature, either through incorrect assumptions about the maximum emissivity of surface materials or the presumption of a uniform surface temperature within the field of view. These incorrect assumptions leave distinct characteristics in the resulting apparent emissivity data that can be used to gain a better understanding of the surface properties. Surfaces with steep slopes typically have a variable surface temperatures within the field of view that cause distinct and highly variable slopes in apparent emissivity spectra based on the observing conditions. These properties are documented on the southwestern flank of Apollinaris Patera and can be reasonably approximated by modeled data. This spectral behavior is associated with extremely rough martian surfaces and includes surfaces south of Arsia Mons and near Warrego Valles that also appear to have high slopes in high resolution images. Surfaces with low maximum values of emissivity have apparent emissivity spectra with more consistent spectral slopes that do not vary greatly based on observing conditions. This spectral surface type is documented in Terra Serenum and is consistent with associated high resolution images that do not indicate the presence of a surface significantly rougher that the surrounding terrain.

We use infrared images obtained by the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) instrument on-board Mars Odyssey to retrieve the optical depth of dust and water ice aerosols over more than 3.5 martian years between February 2002 (MY 25, Ls=330 ) and December 2008 (MY 29, Ls=183). These data provide an important bridge between earlier TES observations and recent observations from Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. An improvement to our earlier retrieval to include atmospheric temperature information from THEMIS Band 10 observations leads to much improved retrievals during the largest dust storms. The new retrievals show moderate dust storm activity during Mars Years 26 and 27, although details of the strength and timing of dust storms is different from year to year. A planet-encircling dust storm event was observed during Mars Year 28 near Southern Hemisphere Summer solstice. A belt of low-latitude water ice clouds was observed during the aphelion season during each year, Mars Years 26 through 29. The optical depth of water ice clouds is somewhat higher in the THEMIS retrievals at approximately 5:00 PM local time than in the TES retrievals at approximately 2:00 PM, suggestive of possible local time variation of clouds.

Viking mission image data revealed the total spatial extent of preserved volcanic surface on Mars. One of the dominating surface expressions is Olympus Mons and the surrounding volcanic province Tharsis. Earlier studies of the global volcanic sequence of events based on stratigraphic relationships and crater count statistics were limited to the image resolution of the Viking orbiter camera. Here, a global investigation based on high-resolution image data gathered by the High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) during the first years of Mars Express orbiting around Mars is presented. Additionally, Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) and Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) images were used for more detailed and complementary information. The results reveal global volcanism during the Noachian period ( > 3.7 Ga ) followed by more focused vent volcanism in three (Tharsis, Elysium, and Circum-Hellas) and later two (Tharsis and Elysium) volcanic provinces. Finally, the volcanic activity became localized to the Tharsis region (about 1.6 Ga ago), where volcanism was active until very recently (200–100 Ma). These age results were expected from radiometric dating of martian meteorites but now verified for extended geological units, mainly found in the Tharsis Montes surroundings, showing prolonged volcanism for more than 3.5 billions years. The volcanic activity on Mars appears episodic, but decaying in intensity and localizing in space. The spatial and temporal extent of martian volcanism based on crater count statistics now provides a much better database for modelling the thermodynamic evolution of Mars.

The presence of pingos on Mars has been hypothesized since the period of the Viking mission. In fact, a diverse range of pingo-like features has been found at various martian sites including Elysium, Chryse and Utopia Planitiae in the northern lowlands. Due to the morphology and the geological setting, some of those features were interpreted in different ways, creating some controversies, as happened in Athabasca Valles. This reflects the complexity of interpreting these features by remote sensing and multiple plausible interpretations of the same feature. With the objective of identifying new possible pingos or rootless cones on Mars, we selected a study area in Utopia Planitia (10–55° N, 210–260° W) where the presence of both features is possible due to its geological history (volcanic and hydrological). We analyzed more than 2100 Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC)-narrow angle images in addition to Viking, Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS), and High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) images, together with Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA)-derived Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) with a Geographic Information System (GIS). We found in 94 MOC-narrow angle images dome, cone, and ring-shaped features. We analyzed them from morphological and morphometrical points of view in order to compare them with relevant features on Mars and Earth. We tested different possible origins for those features following the approach of multiple working hypotheses. We conclude that the dome, cone, and ring-shaped features could be pingos, which is in agreement with their geological settings. Regarding the driving heat source for the formation of the purported pingos, we propose the existence of a heat source, possibly a magma chamber, underneath the surface of the Utopia basin. Together with possible climatic shifts, the past activities of the heat source may have caused melting of ground ice. The pingo growth due to freezing of the water would have occurred during the following cold climatic conditions.

We conducted a systematic, global survey using Thermal Emission Imaging System Infrared (THEMIS IR) coverage (∼100 m/pixel) to search for large alluvial fans in impact craters on Mars. Our survey has focused on large fans (apron areas greater than ∼40 km 2 , usually located in craters greater than 20 km in diameter) due to the resolution of the THEMIS images and Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) coverage. We find that the host craters are found to have a distinctive diameter range from 30–150 km. The fans generally cluster in three geographic areas—southern Margaritifer Terra, southwestern Terra Sabaea, and southwestern Tyrrhena Terra, however several outliers do exist. The alluvial fans do not form in a particular orientation along the crater rim nor are they associated with the location of current high rim topography. Fan area magnitude and variability increase with crater diameter while fan concavity magnitude and variability increase with decreasing crater diameter. Smaller fan aprons in general have higher, more variable concavity. The source of the water forming these fans is uncertain given the challenges of accommodating the global distribution pattern and formation patterns within the craters.

The Martian seasonal CO 2 ice caps advance and retreat each year. In the spring, as the CO 2 cap gradually retreats, it leaves behind an extensive defrosting zone from the solid CO 2 cap to the location where all CO 2 frost has sublimated. We have been studying this phenomenon in the north polar region using data from the THermal EMission Imaging System (THEMIS), a visible and infra-red (IR) camera on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft, and the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) on Mars Global Surveyor. Recently, we discovered that some THEMIS images of the CO 2 defrosting zone contain evidence for a distinct defrosting phenomenon: some areas just south of the CO 2 cap edge are too bright in visible wavelengths to be defrosted terrain, but too warm in the IR to be CO 2 ice. We hypothesize that we are seeing evidence for a seasonal annulus of water ice (frost) that recedes with the seasonal CO 2 cap, as predicted by previous workers. In this paper, we describe our observations with THEMIS and compare them to simultaneous observations by TES and OMEGA. All three instruments find that this phenomenon is distinct from the CO 2 cap and most likely composed of water ice. We also find strong evidence that the annulus widens as it recedes. Finally, we show that this annulus can be detected in the raw THEMIS data as it is collected, enabling future long-term onboard monitoring.

High-resolution observations of atmospheric phenomena by the Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) during its first mapping year are presented. An atmospheric campaign was implemented on the basis of previous spacecraft imaging. This campaign, however, proved of limited success. This appears to be due to the late local time of the Odyssey orbit (the locations of activity at 4–6 p.m. appear to be different from those at 2 p.m.). Ironically, images targeting the surface were more useful for study of the atmosphere than those images specifically targeting atmospheric features. While many previously recognized features were found, novel THEMIS observations included persistent clouds in the southern polar layered deposits, dust or condensate plumes on the northern polar layered deposits, dust plumes as constituent parts of local dust storms, and mesospheric clouds. The former two features tend to be aligned parallel and normal to polar troughs, respectively, suggesting a wind system directed normal to troughs and radially outward from the center of the polar deposits. This is consistent with katabatic drainage of air off the polar deposits, analogous to flow off Antarctica. The observation of dust lifting plumes at unprecedented resolution associated with local dust storms not only demonstrates the importance of mean wind stresses (as opposed to dust devils) in initiation of dust storms, but is also seen to be morphologically identical to dust lifting in terrestrial dust storms. As Odyssey moves to earlier local times, we suggest that the atmospheric campaign from the first mapping year be repeated.

We use Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) topographic data and Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) visible (VIS) images to study the cavity and the ejecta blanket of a very fresh Martian impact crater ~29 km in diameter, with the provisional International Astronomical Union (IAU) name Tooting crater. This crater is very young, as demonstrated by the large depth/ diameter ratio (0.065), impact melt preserved on the walls and floor, an extensive secondary crater field, and only 13 superposed impact craters (all 54 to 234 meters in diameter) on the ~8120 km 2 ejecta blanket. Because the pre-impact terrain was essentially flat, we can measure the volume of the crater cavity and ejecta deposits. Tooting crater has a rim height that has >500 m variation around the rim crest and a very large central peak (1052 m high and >9 km wide). Crater cavity volume (i.e., volume below the pre-impact terrain) is ~380 km 3 and the volume of materials above the pre-impact terrain is ~425 km 3 . The ejecta thickness is often very thin (

We describe 100–200 metre-sized low-albedo haloes from Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) images, located around sunken pits in the vicinity of Cerberus Fossae, Mars, a fissure-vent system that has been suggested to have been volcanically active within the last few million years. Two types of pit have been identified: (1) lenticular/elongate pits located on the floors of fissures/graben, some of which lead to the summit of a volcano; (2) sub-circular pits, lacking the raised rims expected of impact craters, located either within small lava flows, along fissures, or on flat, cratered plains. The low-albedo haloes encircle the pits, and are in places asymmetric in plan-view, exhibiting almost perfect elliptical outlines with low-aspect ratios, and lightening in appearance towards the margins of the ellipses. Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) images suggest the haloes are dark particulate deposits. These deposits bury impact craters to a depth of less than a few decimetres. We argue that the elliptical haloes may be mineral precipitates and/or particulate deposits from ballistic volcanic eruptions that have been disrupted by the wind. They are likely be extremely young because

Theoretical models predict that the depth at which water ice is stable in the subsurface of Mars will vary due to local surface features such as rocks and slopes, and the thermal inertia of the ground above the water. So far, measurements have been limited to overviews of the several-hundred-kilometre footprint covered by the γ-ray spectrometer on-board the Mars Odyssey spacecraft. But Joshua Bandfield has now used the seasonal temperature response of the martian surface (from Odyssey's THEMIS package) to map water ice distribution at the sub-kilometre scale. The observations reveal significant regional and local water-ice depth variability at potential landing sites for the Mars Phoenix mission due for launch later this year. The Phoenix lander's robotic arm will be able to dig up to half a metre or so into the soil to search for water ice, and these results suggest that it may encounter considerable variation in the depth to the ice layer. The seasonal temperature response of the Martian surface is used to map local surface heterogeneities (such as rocks, slopes and thermal inertia of ground cover) at subkilometre scale. These observations show significant regional and local water-ice depth variability, and indicate that the depth to the water-ice table is highly variable in the potential Phoenix spacecraft landing ellipses. Theoretical models indicate that water ice is stable in the shallow subsurface (depths of

International audience; The analysis of particle physical properties (grain size, shape and internal structure) and its organization (surface porosity, roughness, and grain size distribution) provides information about the geological processes which formed and modified planetary surfaces. CRISM (Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars) multi-angular observations (varied emission angles) allow for the characterization of the surface scattering behavior, which depends on the composition and on the material physical properties such as the grain size, shape, internal structure, and the surface roughness. After an atmospheric correction (compensating mineral aerosol effects) by the Multi-angle Approach for Retrieval of the Surface Reflectance from CRISM Observations (MARS-ReCO), the surface reflectances at different geometries were analyzed by inverting the Hapke photometric model depending on six parameters: single scattering albedo, 2 phase function terms, macroscopic roughness and 2 opposition effects terms. In this work, surface photometric maps are created to observe the spatial variations of surface scattering properties as a function of geological units. Information regarding the single scattering albedo, the particle phase function and the macroscopic roughness are provided at the CRISM spatial resolution (200m/pixel). This article describes the application of this methodology to the data covering the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) landing sites located at Gusev Crater and Meridiani Planum where orbital and in situ observations are available. Complementary orbital observations (e.g., CRISM spectra, THermal EMission Imaging System (THEMIS), High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment, (HiRISE) images) were used for interpreting the modeled Hapke photometric parameters in terms of physical properties which can be used to constrain the geological processes. Available MER in situ observations were used as ground truth to validate the interpretations of the Hapke parameters. Varied scattering properties were observed within a CRISM observation (5x10km) suggesting that the surfaces are controlled by local geological processes (e.g., volcanic resurfacing, aeolian and impact processes) rather than regional or global processes. Results are consistent with the in situ observations, thus validating the approach and the use of photometry for the characterization of Martian surface physical properties.

This paper describes results of the calibration of the miniature thermal emission spectrometer (Mini-TES) and the thermal emission imaging system (THEMIS) built by Raytheon Santa Barbara Remote Sensing (SBRS) under contract to Arizona State University (ASU). This paper also serves as an update to an earlier paper (Silverman et al., 2003) for mission description and instrument designs (Schueler et al., 2003). A major goal of the Mars exploration program is to help determine whether life ever existed on Mars via detailed in situ studies and surface sample return. It is essential to identify landing sites with the highest probability of containing samples indicative of early pre-biotic or biotic environments. Of particular interest are aqueous and/or hydrothermal environments in which life could have existed, or regions of current near-surface water or heat sources [Exobiology_Working_Group, 1995, An Exobiological Strategy for Mars Exploration, NASA Headquarters]. The search requires detailed geologic mapping and accurate interpretations of site composition and history in a global context. THEMIS and Mini-TES were designed to do this and builds upon a wealth of data from previous experiments. Previous experiments include the Mariner 6 / 7 Mars infrared radiometer (MIR) and infrared spectrometer [G.C. Pimentel, P.B. Forney, K.C. Herr, Evidence about hydrate and solid water in the martian surface from the 1969 Mariner infrared spectrometer, Journal of Geophysical Research 79(11) (1974) 1623–1634], the Mariner 9 infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS) [B. Conrath, R. Curran, R. Hanel, V. Kunde, W. Maguire, J. Pearl, J. Pirraglia, J. Walker, Atmospheric and surface properties of Mars obtained by infrared spectroscopy on Mariner 9, Journal of Geophysical Research 78 (1973) 4267–4278], the Viking infrared thermal mapper (IRTM) [H.H. Kieffer, T.Z. Martin, A.R. Peterfreund, B.M. Jakosky, E.D. Miner, F.D. Palluconi, Thermal and albedo mapping of Mars during the Viking primary mission, Journal of Geophysical Research 82 (1977) 4249–4292], the Phobos Termoscan [A.S. Selivanov, M.K. Naraeva, A.S. Panfilov, Y.M. Gektin, V.D. Kharlamov, A.V. Romanov, D.A. Fomin, Y.Y. Miroshnichenko, Thermal imaging of the surface of Mars, Nature, 341 (1989) 593–595], and the continuing Mars global surveyor (MGS) mission using the Mars orbiter camera (MOC) [M.C. Malin, K.S. Edgett, Mars global surveyor Mars orbiter camera: interplanetary cruise through primary mission, Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (2001) 23, 429–23, 570] and MGS thermal emission spectrometer (TES) [P.R. Christensen, J.L. Bandfield, V.E. Hamilton, S.W. Ruff, H.H. Kieffer, T. Titus, M.C. Malin, R.V. Morris, M.D. Lane, R.N. Clark, B.M. Jakosky, M.T. Mellon, J.C. Pearl, B.J. Conrath, M.D. Smith, R.T. Clancy, R.O. Kuzmin, T. Roush, G.L. Mehall, N. Gorelick, K. Bender, K. Murray, S. Dason, E. Greene, S.H. Silverman, M. Greenfield, The Mars global surveyor thermal emission spectrometer experiment: investigation description and surface science results, Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (2001a) 23, 823–23, 871]. TES has collected hyperspectral images (up to 286 spectral bands from 6– 50 μ m ) of the entire martian surface, providing an initial global reconnaissance of mineralogy and thermophysical properties [J.L. Bandfield, Global mineral distributions on Mars, Journal of Geophysical Research 107 (2002) 10.1029/2001JE001510; S.W. Ruff, P.R. Christensen, Bright and dark regions on Mars: particle size and mineralogical characteristics based on thermal emission spectrometer data, Journal of Geophysical Research, 2002, in press]. By covering the key 6.3– 15.0 μ m region in both TES and THEMIS, it is possible to combine TES fine spectral resolution with THEMIS fine spatial resolution to achieve a global mineralogic inventory at the spatial scales necessary for detailed geologic studies within the Odyssey data resources. Mini-TES is a single detector Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS), covering the spectral range 5– 29 μ m at 10 cm - 1 spectral resolution. Launched in June 2003, one Mini-TES instrument will fly to Mars aboard each of the two missions of NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Project (MER), named Spirit and Opportunity. The first Mini-TES unit was required to meet a two-year development schedule with proven, flight-tested instrumentation. Therefore, SBRS designed Mini-TES based on proven heritage from the successful MGS TES. THEMIS is based on “bolt-together” pushbroom optics and uncooled silicon microbolometer focal plane array (FPA) technology. Sometimes dubbed “Mars Landsat,” THEMIS was launched in 2001 on Mars Odyssey, and provides guidance for future lander missions now in preparation for launch. Advanced materials and optical machining allow THEMIS low-scatter, reflective, wide field-of-view (WFOV) pushbroom optics for relatively long dwell-time compared to narrow FOV optics requiring cross-track scanning for equivalent spatial resolution. This allows uncooled silicon microbolometer FPAs, with less signal sensitivity than cryogenically cooled photo-diode FPAs, to meet the THEMIS sensitivity requirements. Instrument design, performance, integration, as well as details of the calibration are discussed. Full instrument and calibration details are available in the Journal of Geophysical Research Mini-TES and THEMIS papers by Christensen et al.

We examine hypotheses for the formation of light-toned layered deposits in Juventae Chasma using a combination of data from Mars Global Surveyor's Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), and Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES), as well as Mars Odyssey's Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS). We divide Juventae Chasma into geomorphic units of (i) chasm wall rock, (ii) heavily cratered hummocky terrain, (iii) a mobile and largely crater-free sand sheet on the chasm floor, (iv) light-toned layered outcrop (LLO) material, and (v) chaotic terrain. Using surface temperatures derived from THEMIS infrared data and slopes from MOLA, we derive maps of thermal inertia, which are consistent with the geomorphic units that we identify. LLO thermal inertias range from ∼400 to 850 J m−2 K−1 s−1/2. Light-toned layered outcrops are distributed over a remarkably wide elevation range ( ∼ 5.8 km ) from the chasm floor to the adjacent plateau surface. Geomorphic features, the absence of small craters, and high thermal inertia show that the LLOs are composed of sedimentary rock that is eroding relatively rapidly in the present epoch. We also present evidence for exhumation of LLO material from the west wall of the chasm, within chaotic and hummocky terrains, and within a small depression in the adjacent plateau. The data imply that at least some of the LLO material was deposited long before the adjacent Hesperian plateau basalts, and that Juventae Chasma underwent, and may still be undergoing, enlargement along its west wall due to wall rock collapse, chaotic terrain evolution, and exposure and removal of LLO material. The new data allow us to reassess possible origins of the LLOs. Gypsum, one of the minerals reported elsewhere as found in Juventae Chasma LLO material, forms only at low temperatures ( 60 °C ) and thus excludes a volcanic origin. Instead, the data are consistent with either multiple occurrences of lacustrine or airfall deposition over an extended period of time prior to emplacement of Hesperian lava flows on the plateau above the chasm.

During the past 4 Mars years, Mars Orbiter Camera imaging capabilities have been used to document occurrence of seasonal patches of frost at latitudes as low as 33° S, and even 24° S. Monitoring reveals bright patches on pole-facing slopes; these appear in early southern winter and disappear in mid winter. The frost forms annually. Thermal Emission Spectrometer and daytime Thermal Emission Imaging System observations show surface temperatures on and near pole facing slopes reach the condensation temperature of CO2, indicating the patches consist of carbon dioxide rather than water frost. For several months, temperatures on pole-facing crater walls are so low that even carbon dioxide condenses on them, although the slopes are illuminated by the Sun every day. Thermal model calculations show slopes accumulate a several centimeter thick layer of CO2 frost. The frost becomes visible only months after it has begun to form, and has an orientational preference which is due to illumination bias at the time of observation. H2O condenses at higher temperatures and water frost must therefore also be present. Potential opportunities to observe seasonal water frost at low latitudes are also described.

A wealth of image and topographic data from the Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey missions has been combined in a detailed geological map of the north polar region of Mars. One intriguing finding is a cycle of ice deposition similar in duration to a 1,470-year climate cycle of unknown origin on Earth. If both are externally driven, a mechanism that affects both planets, such as variation in solar luminosity, must be involved. Mariner 9 and Viking spacecraft images revealed that the polar regions of Mars, like those of Earth, record the planet's climate history. However, fundamental uncertainties regarding the materials, features, ages and processes constituting the geologic record remained1,2,3,4,5,6. Recently acquired Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter data7 and Mars Orbiter Camera high-resolution images8 from the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft and moderately high-resolution Thermal Emission Imaging System visible images9 from the Mars Odyssey spacecraft permit more comprehensive geologic and climatic analyses10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17. Here I map and show the history of geologic materials and features in the north polar region that span the Amazonian period (∼3.0 Gyr ago to present)18,19. Erosion and redeposition of putative circumpolar mud volcano deposits15 (formed by eruption of liquefied, fine-grained material) led to the formation of an Early Amazonian polar plateau consisting of dark layered materials. Crater ejecta superposed on pedestals indicate that a thin mantle was present during most of the Amazonian, suggesting generally higher obliquity and insolation conditions at the poles than at present. Brighter polar layered deposits rest unconformably on the dark layers and formed mainly during lower obliquity over the past 4–5 Myr (ref. 20). Finally, the uppermost layers post-date the latest downtrend in obliquity