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Currently, self-report measures are the primary assessment tool for anxiety disorders. Since they have some limitations, alternative measurements, such as language-based measures, are worth investigating. This paper explores which language markers signal anxiety in fictitious stories written in response to four Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) cards. Participants (n = 492) from a non-probabilistic convenience sample were asked to write a short story next to each TAT card after completing the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7. We used RoLIWC2015 to conduct the text analysis and applied the LASSO method to identify which language markers predict anxiety. The results showed that the respondents scoring high on anxiety also tend to use more words expressing negative emotions, and fewer words expressing positive emotions. Moreover, their language contained a higher frequency of words that implied semantic differentiation (i.e., but, else) and a lower frequency of words indicating leisure. In conclusion, this paper aims to shed new light on the multimethod assessment of anxiety, mainly focused on specific language signatures as reliable predictors of anxiety symptoms. Further research using more extensive text data is recommended to discover more linguistic markers and improve prediction accuracy.

Federal law requires that psychoeducational evaluations be comprehensive, and utilize variety of assessment measures that evaluate the child's functioning along academic and cognitive domains as well as life skills outside of the classroom (Wiley, 2014) . Previous research suggests the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Harvard University Press, 1943), a measure requiring responses to ambiguous stimuli, is an important part of comprehensive psychological evaluations (Adolescence, 43(171): 593-606, 2008). However, when integrated into psychoeducational assessment batteries, the TAT poses challenges associated with validity, reliability, and theoretical conceptualization (Miller and Nickerson 2006). In light of this criticism, this study examines the role that the TAT may play in psychoeducational assessment of children. Specifically, the study explores the relationship between TAT narratives, based on Teglasi's coding system (Wiley, 2010), and data from intelligence testing, self- and informant-rating scales of behavior. Utilizing an exploratory mixed-method design, the study concluded that the TAT and standardized intelligence and personality tests measure different aspects of cognitive and emotional domains. Clinicians are encouraged to include the TAT in comprehensive psychoeducational assessments in order to evaluate contextual cognitive processes and implicit emotional functioning that are not measured by standardized tests.

This study investigated the factorial validity of the Contextual Achievement Motivation Scale, assessing achievement motivation in multiple settings with a sample of 493 undergraduate and graduate students. Exploratory factor analysis identified a four-factor model: School (6 items), Employment/Work (6 items), Family (5 items), Community (4 items). These factors accounted for approximately 60% of the variance and correlated in the expected directions with a criterion measure, the Adult Hope Scale. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the identified four-factor model fit the data, ?[superscript 2](182)= 348.10, p< 0.001; ?[superscript 2]/df = 1.91, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI)= 0.92, comparison fit index (CFI)= 0.93, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) [0.058, 0.080]= 0.069, and standardized root-mean square residual (SRMR)= 0.063. In addition, the scale showed partial scalar invariance between genders. The responses are subject to bias and increased the error in reliability and validity. Implications of the research, at a macro-level, draws attention to the importance of work; and one's performance within family, school and community settings.

Determining eligibility for the special education category Emotional Disturbance (ED) is a challenging task. The difficulty in identifying students with ED is due, in part, to problematic federal criteria (Olympia et al., 2004; Skiba, Grizzle, & Minke, 1994). Unchanges since 1975, these criteria have created an environment in which inconsistent assessment practices and diagnostic decisions are inevitable. The current study examines school psychologists' ED assessment practices, and in particular, the use of projective assessment techniques in eligibility determinations. The results suggest that school psychologists regularly use these controversial diagnostic techniques despite questions regarding their psychometric soundness (i.e., reliability and validity) and utility. Among the projective measures reported, those with the most limited empirical support (e.g., H-T-P, KFDS) were most widely used.

Extant literature indicates that international graduate students may experience writing anxiety. Using a grounded theory analysis, we sought to understand how Chinese international graduate students (n = 15) experienced writing anxiety in an R1 public university. Findings revealed that writing anxiety among these students was related to (1) their Chinese cultural/educational background, (2) English as a second language, (3) low writing self-efficacy, and (4) fixed mindset (i.e., belief that one's writing aptitude cannot be increased). Chinese students described using different types of self-regulation strategies to alleviate their writing anxiety. Competence-oriented regulation strategies, or a combination of multiple types of strategies, could be effective in managing their writing anxiety and writing processes. However, if students could not manage their anxiety, they procrastinated in their academic writing tasks. When students procrastinated, they were not satisfied with their work and felt poorly about themselves. We discuss several pedagogical implications of the present study and directions for future research.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder demonstrate narrative (i.e. storytelling) difficulties which can significantly impact their ability to form and maintain social relationships. However, existing research has not comprehensively documented these impairments in more open-ended, emotionally evocative situations common to daily interactions. Computational linguistic measures offer a promising complement to traditional hand-coding methods of narrative analysis and in this study were applied together with hand coding of narratives elicited with emotionally salient scenes from the Thematic Apperception Test. In total, 19 individuals with autism spectrum disorder and 14 typically developing controls were asked to tell stories about six images from the Thematic Apperception Test. Both structural and qualitative aspects of narrative were assessed using a hand-coding system and Latent Semantic Analysis, an automated computational measure of semantic similarity. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder demonstrated significant difficulties with the use of complex syntax to integrate their narratives and problems explaining characters' intentions. These and other key narrative skills were strongly related to narrative competence scores derived from Latent Semantic Analysis, which also distinguished the autism spectrum disorder group from controls. Together, results underscore key narrative impairments in autism spectrum disorder and support the promise of Latent Semantic Analysis as a valuable tool for the quantitative assessment of complex language abilities.

In an increasingly diverse society, and with the broadening scope of art therapy, the duty of art therapists to ensure responsible and appropriate assessment is ever more important. This article discusses considerations that are necessary for the successful adaptation and use of drawing-based assessments in cross-cultural and multicultural contexts. Examples from the literature of art therapy instruments that conform to established principles for cross-cultural psychological assessment are examined, and recommendations are offered to provide direction for their ongoing development.

The Philippine Thematic Apperception Test was administered to 22 intellectually superior Filipino children aged 4 to 9 years from private and public school settings as a means to explore their socio-emotional concerns. A grounded analysis of their narratives revealed the following themes: (a) importance of family relationships, (b) perceptions on school and intelligence, (c) predominant characterization of heroes, (d) peer relationships, and (e) concerns related to God and spirituality. Significant differences in the narratives of the public and private school children are also examined. The implications of using projective measures as a window to gifted children's socio-affective concerns are discussed. (Contains 1 note and 7 tables.)

The history of ideas guiding the development of an attribution-based theory of motivation is presented. These influences include the search for a "grand" theory of motivation (from drive and expectancy/value theory), an attempt to represent how the past may influence the present and the future (as Thorndike accomplished), and the incorporation of causes and their properties (from Heider and Rotter). The goal of this approach is the formulation of a conception in which causes influence action via the mediating mechanisms of specific affects (as first suggested by Atkinson) and expectancy. The empirical and conceptual contributions of the theory are summarized. (Contains 5 figures.)

Implicit measures can be defined as outcomes of measurement procedures that are caused in an automatic manner by psychological attributes. To establish that a measurement outcome is an implicit measure, one should examine (a) whether the outcome is causally produced by the psychological attribute it was designed to measure, (b) the nature of the processes by which the attribute causes the outcome, and (c) whether these processes operate automatically. This normative analysis provides a heuristic framework for organizing past and future research on implicit measures. The authors illustrate the heuristic function of their framework by using it to review past research on the 2 implicit measures that are currently most popular: effects in implicit association tests and affective priming tasks. (Contains 1 footnote and 1 figure.)

Approximately 4.5 to 6.3 million youth experience serious emotional disturbances. Unfortunately, many of them have unmet mental health needs. Tools used in personality assessment can offer unparalleled assistance in diagnosis, and assist in designing appropriate interventions. Unfortunately, not all psychologists embrace personality assessment as a key component in conducting a comprehensive psychological evaluation. In this article the effective use of personality assessment tools is described, with particular attention to issues of comorbidity. Guidelines for effective practice are also offered.

This article provides a review of Roberts-2, an individually administered narrative measure published by Western Psychological Services. Roberts-2 is a substantial revision of the earlier version of this measure, the Roberts Apperception Test for Children (RATC; McArthur & Roberts, 1982). Roberts-2 is composed of 16 stimulus cards that direct youngsters to tell a complete story that includes a beginning, middle, and end and the thoughts and feelings of the characters. It is intended to be used in conjunction with other methods used by school and clinical psychologists to assess youth referred for special education or mental health-related social, emotional, or adjustment problems. The theoretical underpinnings of Roberts-2 are grounded in developmental psychology in that a child's expressive language skills can provide an index of the child's social-cognitive skills (e.g., Piaget & Inhelder, 1971). Thus, the measure is intended for use with a varied group of referred youth and should be compatible with major theoretical orientations such as cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, and psychodynamic.

Background/Context: The U.S. federal government has been interested in improving the performance of students who come from low-income homes since the time of Lyndon Johnson's "Great Society" initiatives in the 1960s. The current administration strongly supports the belief that good schools can be created and has funded the Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) program to support these beliefs. This article provides information about recent school reform research and conditions of schooling. The article then reviews our research findings (drawing on all the preceding articles in the special issue) and considers implications for policy makers, principals, teachers, teacher educators, and researchers. Purpose: The basic intent of this study was to inform working theories of learning, motivation, and social/emotional development in school contexts in Grades 3-5. We hoped that an emphasis on theory, contextual enactment, and participant mediation would yield a richer picture of classroom practices and motivational dynamics that might underlie student achievement and CSR effectiveness. This study focused in particular on perspectives (principals and students) and classroom practices associated with CSR programs in elementary schools in the state of Arizona. Research Design: The research program includes interview (with principals), observation (of classroom practices), and survey measures, and an adaptation of Thematic Apperception Test procedures (with students). Conclusion/Recommendations: School reform initiatives can profit from more research on participant perceptions, actual classroom practices, and student mediation of those practices. These understandings can better link program design and student achievement to enhance the effectiveness of CSR initiatives. We believe that it is now possible to conduct field experiments for improving normative (typical) practice in elementary school classrooms. We offer considerations for doing this research and suggest the need for attention to students, both as social beings and learners, while altering classroom practices in small measured steps.

Background/Context: Working theories about student goal orientation, understanding of intelligence, and affective mediation of task engagement inform current beliefs about students and learning and motivation. Much research has focused on identifying effective teaching strategies to raise the achievement of disadvantaged students; however, less is known about how students who attend high-poverty schools conceptualize school and teachers, and motivation and learning. Our study draws from literature on student motivation and learning to understand how students who attend Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) schools think about motivation and learning. Research Question: We examined students' responses to pictures of student-teacher interaction to understand how students who attend CSR schools think about motivation and learning. Story analysis was guided by the following questions: How do student stories portray student-teacher interaction? Specifically, what interpersonal supports and opportunities do they describe? What motivational systems are attributed to story characters? What are their challenges, behaviors, and goals? How do the story characters feel and manage their emotions? Population: Students (N = 174) in Grades 3-5 who attended three CSR schools. Research Design: Data collection consisted of student stories in response to a picture of student-teacher interaction. Project instruments and procedures are an adaptation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Conclusions: Results suggest that students in these CSR schools held positive beliefs about their teachers and classroom learning. Story content analyses indicated that students' perceptions of student-teacher interaction reflect a concern with achievement rather than affiliation. Achievement goals of story characters primarily concerned correctness; understanding and volitional engagement also were expressed. Story characters primarily were portrayed as compliant, optimistic, and relatively positive about their interaction with their teacher and their learning. In approximately one third of the narratives, story characters struggled with problems of varied magnitude; however, in half of these stories, characters were able to navigate solutions and overcome negative emotions and obstacles.

Background/Context: Elementary school teachers regularly arrange students in small groups for learning activities. A rich literature discusses various types of small-group learning formats and how those formats affect achievement. Few studies, however, have examined students' perceptions of small-group learning experiences. Our work extends the small-group literature by studying stories written in response to a picture of children in a small group by students who attend Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) schools about learning in small groups. Research Question: We examined students' responses to pictures of small-group situations. Story analysis was guided by the following questions: How do student stories portray small-group experiences? Specifically, do students' representations focus on achievement or affiliation? Are their representations positive and optimistic, or negative and pessimistic? What motivational systems are attributed to story characters? What are their challenges, behaviors, and goals? What do story characters feel, and how do they manage emotions? Population: Students (N = 183) in Grades 3-5 who attended three CSR schools. Research Design: Data collection consisted of student stories in response to a picture of three children working in a group in a classroom. Project instruments and procedures are an adaptation of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Conclusions: Results suggest that students in these CSR schools held positive beliefs about their small-group learning experiences. The stories portrayed students as active, compliant participants who supported one another's learning, sometimes found their experiences personally meaningful, and were concerned with both achievement and affiliation. Students rarely represented competitive themes and never described rejection, being ignored, or giving up. Students told stories about small-group learning in school that sound like a typical day in most schools: They portray students who work together, support one another, and get the job done.

In our match towards scientific and technological advancement, we need nothing short of good performance in mathematics at all levels of schooling. In an effort to achieve this, this study investigated the impact of motivation on students' school academic achievement in mathematics in secondary schools using motivation for academic preference scale (a = 0.82) as a measuring instrument and achievement test in mathematics (ATM) Two hypotheses were tested for significant at 0.05 margin of error using t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) Results showed that gender difference were significant when impact of motivation on academic achievement was compared in male and female students. Also other result indicates significant difference when extent of motivation was taken as variable of interest on academic achievement in mathematics based on the degree of their motivation. Implications, suggestions and recommendations on students, parents, government, counsellors, educational stakeholders, etc were discussed.

The construct of "other-directed versus self-directed career choice" has existed for quite some time. The current focus of vocational psychologists and counselors has made them question the relevance of this construct for contemporary American society. Many counselors today challenge the assumption that a career choice based on others' expectations is problematic. This longitudinal study utilized a logistic regression analysis to determine whether self-directed or other-directed status, as measured by the Thematic Apperception Test related to success with which individuals enacted career choices. The sample consisted of 433 BS/MD students enrolled in a Bachelor of Science-Doctor of Medicine (BS/MD) degree program at a Midwestern medical college. The findings showed that self-directed or other-directed career choice did not predict academic success.

The use of projective techniques by school psychologists has been a point of interest and debate, with a number of survey studies documenting usage. The purpose of this study is to update the status of projective use among school psychologists, with a specific focus on their use in the social emotional assessment of children in schools. In addition to gathering information about the frequency of use, this study provides information about the types of assessment activities in which the assessments are used and practitioner's perception of the utility of specific instruments. Results indicate that school psychologists view projective assessments as moderately useful and that they continue to use projectives across grades and for a variety of educational purposes, including eligibility determination and intervention development. Results are discussed critically in the context of previous research. (Contains 1 figure, 3 tables and 1 note.)

This study examined the validity of using stories to appraise career dispositions and problems associated with career adaptability. Premedical students (63 women, 37 men) wrote narratives about Thematic Apperception Test cards (TAT) and responded to the Strong Interest Inventory (SII). Independent raters identified identical career adaptability dimensions from TAT stories more than 47% of the time. RIASEC codes derived from TAT responses matched measured codes on at least one theme 82% of the time. Results provided modest support for the reliability of using TAT card responses to derive a RIASEC personality type consistent with measured vocational interests. Further study to increase interrater reliability and hone the scoring scheme for deriving RIASEC codes might bolster the validity of using story to assess vocational personality dispositions and career problems. Ultimately, constructivist approaches could augment differential methods for appraising and fostering career exploration and choice in an integrated career assessment and counseling approach.

Investigates female friends' influence on achievement-related choices using the Thematic Apperception Test. Study tests two hypotheses: (1) achievement-related stimuli will elicit stories with more unfavorable outcomes than will affiliation stimuli; (2) thematic representation of achievement will be more homogeneous in more highly cohesive peer groups. Significant results found for Hypotheses 1; thematic analysis of stories supported Hypothesis 2. (Author/JDM)

Focuses on the emotional/cognitive processes associated with teacher ratings of empathic and socially competent behaviors. Results indicate that children (N=120) with higher empathy ratings and at higher grade levels received higher scores on a storytelling measure--the Thematic Apperception Test. Clarifies the social information processing of children. (RJM)

Used Thematic Apperception Test to examine defenses and motivations which may impact girls' functioning within family and heterosexual relationships. Results confirmed reports that adolescent mothers attempt to resolve autonomy-dependence conflicts in heterosexual relationships, whereas nonmothers do so within family of origin. Consistent with enhanced ego maturity, teenage mothers were more likely to confront their conflicts than were nonmothers. (Author/NB)

The study assessed the cross-cultural validity of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) as a gauge of motivation to succeed (as proposed in Atkinson's model of motivation) with 45 Hong Kong students. Although doubts about the TAT's validity were found to be unjustified, the question of whether the test captures the need to achieve remains. (Author/MSE)

Administered the TEMAS (Tell Me a Story) test to 73 public school and 210 clinical Puerto Rican children. Story content was scored for nine personality functions and descriptive indexes. Results indicated internal consistency and interrater reliability. TEMAS indexes significantly discriminated between school and clinical samples. (BH)

Investigates stability and change in four social motives (achievement, affiliation, fear of weakness, hope of power) over the adult life cycle. Motives were assessed in 1957 and 1976 by coding thematic apperceptive content in stories told about six pictures. Some age differences and cohort stability were evident for both sexes. (Author/CB)

The correlation between number of words used to describe an imaginary picture on the blank card of the Thematic Apperception Test and creativity scores was examined with 47 undergraduate women. Results indicated length of response to the blank card correlated better with creativity than did length of response to picture cards. (DB)

Discusses achievement motivation among distance education students, and describes a study of Kenyan primary school teachers enrolled in an in-service training course taught primarily through correspondence. A modified Thematic Apperception Test will be used to determine the correlation between achievement motive and performance score in written assignments. (LRW)