Search

Bioponics has the potential to recover nutrients from organic waste streams, such as chicken manure and digestate with high volatile fatty acid (VFA) contents through crop production. Acetic acid, a dominant VFA, was supplemented weekly (0, 500, 1000, and 1500 mg/L) in a chicken manure-based bioponic system, and its effect on the performance of bioponics (e.g., plant yield and nitrogen and phosphorus availabilities) was examined. Microbial communities were analyzed using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and the functional gene abundances were predicted using PICRUSt. Although acetic acid negatively affected plant yield, no significant difference (p 0.05) was noted in the average nitrogen or phosphorus concentration. In terms of nutrient recovery, the bioponic systems still functioned well, although higher concentrations of acetic acid decreased plant yield and altered the bacterial communities in plant roots and chicken manure sediments. These data suggest that an acetic acid concentration of 500 mg/L or a longer loading interval is recommended for the effective operation of chicken manure and digestate-based bioponics.

Comprehensive knowledge of faecal sludge characteristics is needed for sludge management planning, but it is lacking for the city of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Thus, this study characterised physicochemical properties of faecal sludge from households in Phnom Penh and related these to sludge containment unit type, unit age, connectedness to the urban drainage network, type of wastewater captured, watertight containment units, number of users, and emptying practices. In total, 194 faecal sludge samples collected during containment unit emptying were analysed for physicochemical parameters. Information on containment units was collected in a survey of emptiers and users. Mean values of faecal sludge chemical parameters were found to be slightly lower than previously reported values for low-/middle-income countries, whereas physicochemical properties were within similar ranges. The main factor influencing organic matter content in faecal sludge was containment unit connection to the urban drainage network, whereas emptying practice and capture of only blackwater affected nutrient levels. The concentrations of nutrients and organic pollutants greatly exceeded Cambodian discharge standards for wastewater. This causes environmental impacts, so treatment is needed before discharge. The faecal sludge characteristics and influencing factors identified here can serve as a baseline for sanitation stakeholders planning faecal sludge management systems in Phnom Penh and similar cities.

In most low- and middle-income countries, due to financial constraints and improper management practices, the expansion of conventional centralized systems to enhance wastewater management services is not practical. Despite the fact that the majority of the world population has met the Millennium Development Goals 7c (MDG7c) targets, more than 2.5 billion are still using unimproved sanitation facilities and affecting the safety of drinking water and public health. Because of this problem, a novel approach on ‘Non-Sewered Sanitation’ with decentralized treatment systems is being recognized as a promising alternative to accomplish the Sustainable Development Goal No. 6 (SDG6) targets on ‘Safe Water and Sanitation’ and bringing health benefits to the people. This study aimed to investigate the current status of access to improved sanitation facilities in relation to the MDG7c and SDG6 in Thailand and comparing with other countries, including the effects of unsafely managed fecal sludge (FS) on the prevalence of diarrhea and liver fluke infections. The prevailing constraints and weaknesses were identified, and effective sanitation management measures to accomplish SDG6 targets were recommended. Based on data collected from 20 cities located in the north and northeastern regions of Thailand during the period of 2015–2020, the sanitation facilities data on conventional centralized systems and FS management facilities that affect the prevalence of diarrhea and liver infections were analyzed and interpreted using statistical and response surface methodology techniques. The findings showed that most of the surveyed cities have achieved the MDG7c targets, but 70% of the FS generated from on-site sanitation systems are still unsafely managed, caused by limited expansion of sewage systems for wastewater collection and conveyance (with inadequate operation and maintenance) as well as the financial constraints, especially in areas outside of urban neighborhoods. The effective sanitation management practices to accomplish the SDG6 targets were proposed such as increasing the capacity of sanitation facilities to be 55,000 m3/day/30,000 households, designing appropriate FS collection program and treatment technology, and providing more awareness programs for safe sanitation management and health risk protection. HIGHLIGHTS This has identified an inconvenient truth after achieving MDG7c in relation to SDG6.; This has identified the reasons why many countries could not achieve SDG6?; This has identified the relationships between MDG7c and SDG6.; This has indicated the relationships between the effect of unsafely managed FS and fecal pathogen infections.; This has proposed an effective way to accomplish SDG6.

Vertical Garden Constructed Wetland (VGCW) system has been used as a post-treatment system to improve effluent quality of septic tanks and cesspools by enhancing nutrients, organic and solid removal according to the guidelines of effluent discharge. This study aimed to investigate the treatment performance of the VGCWs used as post-treatment for conventional or solar septic tanks. Laboratory-scale VGCWs, VGCWs with the media (mVGCW) and mVGCW with plants (mpVGCW) were fed with effluent collected from a septic tank and operated at various HRTs and plant types. Treatment performance of the VGCWs, mVGCWs and mpVGCWs treating effluent from the septic tank and operating at the 24h HRT or more was found to achieve the highest organic matters, nutrients and solids removal efficiencies (up to more than 90%). Moreover, the highest log reduction of E.coli of 2.8 was also observed at the 24h HRT. The Water Pennywort, Spider Ivy, Coleus, and Selaginella frosty can be planted in the VGCW system to enhance the overall treatment efficiencies. These results suggested the potential of the VGCWs as a post-treatment system for polishing septic tank effluent and improving environmental quality.

The value chain (VC) system is a key way to address important sanitation technological and institutional gaps in production and service delivery and could constitute a natural platform for development actions and also serve as a market systems approach to improve access to safely-managed sanitation. It has been suggested that sanitation could boost local and national economies and global interconnections with a growing recognition that the private sector can play a bigger role in delivering the Sustainable Development Goal for sanitation, and help businesses understand value-added and product opportunities. This book proposes a pathway towards re-thinking the sanitation value chain (SVC) and suggests that it should cover all processes, activities and products of enterprises/actors in the sanitation supply chain that provide value-added services within each stage. Following the Regenerative Sanitation Principles, this book presents a new perspective to the SVC known as the ‘integrated functional sanitation value chain’ (IFSVC) to address operational functions within sanitation systems in combination with sanitation enterprises, operators and external actors that support the growth of the sanitation economy. The underlying premise of this book is that the IFSVC represents a new perspective that would have major social, environmental and economic implications for local, national, regional and global sanitation service delivery. It is hoped that researchers, business leaders, entrepreneurs, government officials and funders will find this book valuable, and be inspired and enabled to carry sanitation work forward in their own spheres of operation. The book gives several examples of encouraging developments, particularly in technical and business model innovation. It is our hope that this book will provide the stimulus for new learning and its application, particularly through cross-disciplinary and cross-sector partnerships that bring together all the skills and capabilities needed to deliver a fully effective IFSVC. ISBN: 9781789061833 (print) ISBN: 9781789061840 (eBook) ISBN: 9781789061857 (ePUB)

Hydrochar, a solid product of hydrothermal carbonization of biomass, has been used in many applications, especially on sustainable bio-energy. In this research, the hydrochar produced from fecal sludge was transferred into pellets using a hydraulic press at various mixing ratios of hydrochar, binders (lignin, starch, and calcium hydroxide), and water. The produced hydrochar pellet characteristics such as energy content, pellet density, and compressive strength were determined. The pelletizing process resulted in increased density and compressive strength of the hydrochar pellets, but the energy content was relatively stable. Adding water resulted in decreased density and compressive strength of the hydrochar pellets. The optimum mixing ratio of hydrochar/starch/water for the pelletizing process was suggested to be 85:15:0 by weight. At this optimum condition, energy contents, densities, and compressive strengths of the hydrochar pellets of 20.1–20.5 MJ/kg, 995–1020 kg/m3, and 8.5–9.2 kN/m2, respectively, could be achieved. At complete combustion, particulate matter sizes of 0.4–2.1 μm in diameters were the main PM component, and the emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide were estimated to be 176 g and 2 g per 100 g of the hydrochar pellet, respectively.

Septic tank sludge or fecal sludge (FS) is often discharged on public areas without any treatment, causing environmental and adverse public health effects. Millennium Development Goal 7c (MDG 7c) targets improved access to water and sanitation because 85% of the world’s total FS is often discharged on public areas. Like other countries, Thailand faces fecal slugde management (FSM) problems leading to significant fecal pathogen infections, especially in the north and northeastern regions. This study assessed the effects of unsafely-managed FS on human health risks in two cities, Natan City and Tham Lod City in Thailand, that have relatively high liver fluke and diarrhea infections, and identified the factors relating to FSM practices that affect the prevalence of liver fluke and diarrhea infections due to FS. Specific measures were proposed in delivering integrated FSM solutions and health risk protection toward the Sustainable Development Goal No. 6 (SDG6) targets of safely managed sanitation and hygiene services. Based on data collected from these cities from February to May 2019, factors relating to FSM practices that affect the prevalence of liver fluke and diarrhea infections were identified and analysed using multiple regression analysis. Based on the findings, specific measures in delivering integrated FSM solutions and health risk protection toward the Sustainable Development Goals 6 (SDG 6) are proposed. Because no FS treatment facilities operate in Natan City and Tham Lod City, almost 100% of FS is discharged directly into open drains, resulting in diarrhea and liver fluke infections among local people. The findings identified the factors relating to FSM practices that affect the prevalence of liver fluke and diarrhea infections and proposed specific measures in delivering integrated FSM solutions and health risk protection, such as promoting education programmes, avoiding direct FS discharges into open drains and nearby streams, and providing innovative FSM technologies to eradicate fecal pathogen infections.

Bioponics integrates the biological treatment of nutrient-rich waste streams with hydroponics. However, there are several challenges of bioponics, especially nutrient availability and qualities, which affect plant yield. In this study, chicken manure based-nutrient film technique bioponics was examined at manure loadings of 200, 300, and 400 g dry wt. per bioponic system (total of 18 plants). Bioponics effectively released nitrogen and phosphorus (total ammonia nitrogen of 5.8–8.0 mgN/L, nitrate of 7.0–11.2 mgN/L, and phosphate of 48.7–74.2 mgP/L) for efficient growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa; total yield of 1208–2030 g wet wt. per 18 plants). Nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiencies were 35.1–41.8% and 6.8–8.0%, respectively, and were comparable to aquaponics. Next-generation sequencing was used to examine the microbial communities in digested chicken manure and plant roots in bioponics. Results showed that several microbial genera were associated with organic degradation (e.g., Nocardiopsis spp., Cellvibrio spp.), nitrification (Nitrospira spp.), phosphorus solubilization, and plant growth promotion (e.g., WD2101_soil_group, and Bacillus spp.). Nocardiopsis spp., Romboutsia spp. and Saccharomonospora spp. were found at high abundances and a high degree of co-occurrences among the microbiota, suggesting that the microbial organic decomposition to nitrogen and phosphorus release could be the key factors to achieve better nutrient recovery in bioponics.

Low priority on waste management has impacted the complex environmental issue, where this study found out up to 24.3% of waste generation in Jakarta and Bandung is emitted to the waterway due to the high intensity of human activity in the urban area. In this study, we investigated the viable integration between material flow analysis and leakage hotspot modelling to improve the management strategy of the plastic pollution in the water system and open environment. Using the multi-criteria assessment through the plastic leakage from its management, a material flow analysis has developed on the city scale. Comprehensively identifying using potent identification and hydrological characterization, plastic waste from Jakarta city has occasionally estimated 2603 ton discarded to Ciliwung River while the plastics from Bandung Area has contributed to 1547 ton, addressing Cikapundung River as the main tributary of Citarum mainstream in annual basis.

An innovative decentralized wastewater treatment system, namely the ‘Solar Septic Tank (SST)’, was constructed and tested at the household scale in a community in central Thailand. This study aimed to investigate the long-term performance of the SST in treating blackwater subject to year-round variation. Results of the 3-year continuous operation and monitoring showed significant improvement in the SST effluent quality with the potential to minimize environmental problems and public health risks. The SST achieved significantly higher total chemical oxygen demand, soluble chemical oxygen demand, total biochemical oxygen demand (TBOD), soluble biochemical oxygen demand, total kjeldahl nitrogen, total solid and total volatile solid removal efficiencies than a conventional septic tank (CST). The average TBOD concentration of the SST effluent was 150 ± 75 mg/L, meeting the Thai discharge standard (less than 200 mg/L of TBOD), while the average TBOD concentration of the CST was 240 ± 140 mg/L, higher than the Thai discharge standard. The Escherichia coli inactivation in the SST was 1–2 log reduction more than that in the CST. The removal efficiencies of TBOD and pathogens exhibited positive correlation with the ratios of the SST temperature.

This study was conducted to evaluate the treatment performance of the anoxic–oxic–anoxic processes in illuminated biofilm reactor (AOA-IBR) in removing organics and nitrogen contained in septic tank effluent. The 27 L of the AOA-IBR was illuminated with red light-emitting diode (LED) lamps (peak wavelength of 635 nm, intensity of 100 μmol/(m2s)). Three types of biofilm media, namely ball ring®, plastic sheets and zeolite beads, were placed in the anoxic, oxic and anoxic zones, respectively, of the reactor to support the growth of microalgal–bacterial biofilm. The AOA-IBR was continuously fed with septic tank effluent and operated at hydraulic retention times (HRTs) of 24, 48 and 72 h. The experimental results found the increases in chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN) and ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N) removal efficiencies with increasing HRTs in which the HRT of 72 h resulted in 78.6, 72.8 and 90.6% removals of COD, TN and NH4-N, respectively. The effluent quality of the AOA-IBR could meet the ISO 30500 effluent standards for Non-Sewered Sanitation Systems. The predominant microalgal biofilm species was observed to be Oscillatoria sp., while Proteobacteria was the predominant bacterial phylum found in the biofilm growing in the reactor. The above results suggested the applicability of the AOA-IBR in improving septic tank treatment performance which should result in better water pollution control.

This study aims to provide valuable insights into the process of innovation for development. We selected the &ldquo, Reinvent the Toilet Challenge&rdquo, an initiative of the Gates Foundation, with the objective of creating sustainable sanitation solutions for the 2.5 billion people across the globe who lack access to safe and affordable sanitation. The Naturally Acceptable and Technologically Sustainable (NATS) team at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand was appointed by the Gates Foundation to serve as an innovative fecal sludge management (FSM) hub in Southeast Asia and collaborate with other researchers in the region, as well as with other teams from around the world to develop innovative FSM techniques that can help to solve the world sanitation problem. By gaining insights into how innovators interact with key stakeholders, we can understand the process of innovation for development and the role of innovation brokers in the innovation process, and then suggest a roadmap from the perspective of responsible research and innovation (RRI) to guide innovators, project leaders, industry partners, local government, and policy makers in the process of innovation for development.

“Up-flow thermophilic septic tank” (UTST) has been recently developed as an innovative on-site treatment technology to improve the treatment performance of existing sanitation technologies such as septic tanks and cesspools by promoting the growth of thermophilic microorganisms and enhancing the contact between these microorganisms and blackwater. The UTST is an improved version of the conventional solar septic tanks by integrating an up-flow hydraulic mode in the septic tank. The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of hydraulic retention times (HRTs) on the performance of UTST treating blackwater, identify dominant microbial clusters in the UTST and develop a platform for design and operation of the UTST. The experiments were conducted with a laboratory-scale UTST (27 L in size) fed with blackwater collected from public toilets of an academic building. After acclimatization, the laboratory-scale UTST was operated at the HRTs of 8, 16, 24 and 32 h with continuous blackwater feeding for 4 months. The average chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiencies of the laboratory-scale UTST operating at 8, 16, 24 and 32 h at the temperature of 50 °C were 53, 67, 77 and 75%, respectively, while similar trend was observed for the 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5). Because there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in COD and BOD5 removal efficiencies between 24- and 32-h HRTs operation, the HRT of 24 h was selected to be optimum. The average CH4 yield by the laboratory-scale UTST operating at 50 °C and HRT of 24 h was found to be 0.037 L/gCODinput. The abundance and dominance of microbial clusters in both liquid and sludge layers in the UTST analyzed by high-sequencing 16S rRNA revealed the abundance and dominance of Methanosaeta and Methanothermobacter responsible for organic degradation and CH4 production. The results of this laboratory-scale experiment on UTST suggested its applicability for blackwater treatment which should lead to better pollution control and public health protection.

Decentralized wastewater treatment systems enable wastewater to be treated at the source for cleaner discharge into the environment, protecting public health while allowing for reuse for agricultural and other purposes. This study, conducted in Thailand, investigated a decentralized wastewater treatment system incorporating a physical and photochemical process. Domestic wastewater from a university campus and conventional septic tank effluent from a small community were filtered through a woven-fiber microfiltration (WFMF) membrane as pretreatment for ultraviolet (UV) disinfection. In domestic wastewater, WFMF reduced TSS (by 79.8%), turbidity (76.5%), COD (38.5%), and NO3 (41.4%), meeting Thailand irrigation standards for every parameter except BOD. In septic tank effluent, it did not meet Thailand irrigation standards, but reduced TSS (by 77.9%), COD (37.6%), and TKN (13.5%). Bacteria (total coliform and Escherichia coli) and viruses (MS2 bacteriophage) passing through the membrane were disinfected by flow-through UV reactors containing either a low-pressure mercury lamp or light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emitting an average peak wavelength of 276 nm. Despite challenging and variable water quality conditions (2% &lt, UVT &lt, 88%), disinfection was predictable across water types and flow rates for both UV sources using combined variable modeling, which enabled us to estimate log inactivation of other microorganisms. Following UV disinfection, wastewater quality met the WHO standards for unrestricted irrigation.

Using a case study approach from past projects in Singapore, Australia, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, we examine the benefits, but also some of the challenges, to implementing green space in urban design. Green space can have multiple physical and psychological wellbeing benefits, as well as environmental benefits, including urban runoff quantity and quality management, urban heat island abatement, air quality improvement, and noise reduction. Water sensitive urban design (WSUD) can be an important element of green space design and here we explore how modeling of ecosystem services and dynamic modeling of WSUD can help to facilitate sound planning and management decision making in support of green space implementation. As we illustrate with examples for Australia, Singapore and Cambodia, we believe that application of an urban ecosystem services modeling approach can elucidate environmental benefits of urban green space that otherwise may not be considered. Engineers may include dynamic modeling of WSUD in support of an urban master plan, or urban redevelopment, but generally urban planners are less conversant in applying models. We discuss some of the challenges to integrating multidisciplinary visioning and modeling of green space design and performance evaluation through our experience with a stormwater and wastewater design study for Cha Am, Thailand, that included landscape architecture and engineering classes at Thammasat University, Mahidol University, and AIT. Through a case study of Phnom Penh, we illustrate how modeling and 3D visualization can be used to effectively explore the benefits of green space. We conclude that a user-friendly decision support system is needed to integrate modeling and visualization tools and thereby bridge the gap between form and function in urban green space design.

Over the last more than 2 years (2018-2020), the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) has worked closely withAsian Institute of Technology (AIT),National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), and Thailand National Taskforce Team memberson a project titled “Policy Dialogue and Network Building of Multi-stakeholders on integrated Decentralized Domestic Wastewater Management in ASEAN Countries”, funded by the Government of Japan through Japan-ASEAN Integration Fund. As part of our commitment, this Policy Briefhas been jointly prepared by the team toaddress the barriers and provide policy recommendations to improvethe performance ofwastewater sector in Thailand, particularly focusing on exploring how sanitation value chain and decentralised wastewater management approach could contribute towardsustainablewastewater and faecal sludge management in Thailand

Domestic wastewater containing a high proportion of organic matter and nutrients is a serious pollution problem in developing countries. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of a novel attached-growth high rate algal pond (AG-HRAP) employing attached-growth media and artificial light sources for treating domestic wastewater and enhancing nutrient recovery. Light intensities in the range of 40–180 μmol/m2/s were used in the AG-HRAPs. The experimental results showed that the highest chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) removal efficiencies of 88, 62 and 69%, respectively, were found at the hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 15 days and the average light intensity of 180 μmol/m2/s. Moreover, the effluent COD concentrations could meet Thailand's national discharge standard. The highest biomass and protein productivities of 54 ± 4 and 37 ± 8 g/m2/d, respectively, were found in the AG-HRAPs, which were higher than in previous studies of HRAPs. The Stover-Kincannon kinetic values for COD, TN and TP removals of the AG-HRAPs (R2 = 0.9) were higher than those of the conventional systems. Additionally, the novel AG-HRAP system could provide a highly cost-effective operation when compared to other microalgal systems.

The up-flow solar septic tank (UTST) and multi-soil layering (MSL) system has been developed and proposed as “Nouveau Design Solar Septic Tank”. The objective of this study was to verify functionality of the integrated UTST and MSL system for treatment of toilet wastewater (or black water) under actual conditions over a year at the Asian Institute of Technology campus, Pathumthani province, central Thailand. During the operation period which involved fluctuating flow rates, ambient temperatures and black water characteristics, the UTST unit yielded satisfactory performance with the average treatment efficiencies of 92±10% for total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD), 79±10% for soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD), 93±9% for total 5-days biochemical oxygen demand (TBOD) and 90±12% for soluble 5-days biochemical oxygen demand (SBOD), respectively, while the MSL unit could remove 95 ±3%, and 88 ±15% of total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and total phosphorus (TP), respectively. The effluent TCOD, TBOD, TKN, nitrite (NO2-N), nitrate (NO3-N), ammonia (NH3) and TP concentrations of the integrated UTST and MSL system were 39±27,8±27,5±5 mg/L, 2±2,39±24,8±9,2±5 and 1±1 mg/L, respectively, meeting the ISO requirements. The removal efficiencies of TCOD, SCOD, TBOD and SBOD exhibited positive correlation with the ratios of TBOD/TKN, TBOD/SBOD and TBOD/TP. With high treatment efficiencies and effluent quality meeting the ISO requirements, the nouveau design solar septic tank has been demonstrated as an innovative technology toward the sanitation 4.0 concept and the Sustainable Development Goal no. 6 (SDG6)., Graphical abstract, Highlights • Reinvented toilet technology is as a sustainable solution for sanitation 4.0. • To achieve the ISO30500 standard, the nouveau design solar septic tank is proposed. • Performance of integrated UTST and MLS treatment system in the practical application was evaluated. • Effluent concentrations and its efficiencies were in compliance with the standards.

To improve treatment performance of the solar septic tank technology, novel constructed wetland systems have been proposed as an effective post-treatment system. This study aimed to investigate the treatment performance of the multi-soil layer based constructed wetland (MSL-CW) and comparing with the modified constructed wetland (mCW) for treating solar septic tank effluent in long-term operation. Pilot-scale MSL-CW and mCW units were operated in parallel under the same conditions during the period of 2016–2019. Removal efficiencies of TCOD, SCOD and TBOD in the MSL-CW were not significantly different (p, Graphical abstract Unlabelled Image, Highlights • The MSL-CW and modified CW systems are considered as novel constructed wetlands for treating solar septic tank effluent. • The systems are very effective for removing organic matters, solids, nutrients and pathogens in long term. • The effluent could meet the global standards of non-sewered sanitation systems and the WHO guidelines.

Septic tanks are widely deployed for off-grid sewage management but are typified by poor treatment performance, discharge of polluting effluents and the requirement for frequent de-sludging. The Solar Septic Tank (SST) is a novel septic tank design that uses passive heat from the sun to raise in-tank temperatures and improves solids degradation, resulting in a cleaner effluent. Treatment has been shown to exceed conventional systems, however, the underlying biology driving treatment in the system is poorly understood. We used next generation sequencing (Illumina Miseq (San Diego, CA, USA), V4 region 16S DNA) to monitor the microbiology in the sludge and effluent of two mature systems, a conventional septic tank and an SST, during four months of routine operation in Bangkok, Thailand, and evaluated the ecology against a suite of operating and performance data collected during the same time period. Significant differences were observed between the microbiome of the sludge and effluent in each system and the dominant taxa in each appeared persistent over time. Furthermore, variation in the microbial community composition in the system effluents correlated with effluent water quality and treatment performance parameters, including the removal of chemical and biochemical oxygen demand and the concentration of fecal and total coliforms in the effluent. Thus, we propose that a wide-scale survey of the biology underlying decentralised biotechnologies for sewage treatment such as the SST could be conducted by sampling system effluent rather than sampling sludge. This is advantageous as accessing sludge during sampling is both hazardous and potentially disruptive to the anaerobic methanogenic consortia underlying treatment in the systems.

Soil fertility degradation is threatening the sustainability of the global agricultural production system. Unimproved onsite sanitation systems along with inappropriate disposal of fecal sludge (FS) are predominant in the urban areas of low-income countries and rural areas all over the world. At the same time, animal waste is already used as a very common fertilizer, while the use of human waste, which has high nutrient value, is still limited. Since global issues of waste disposal and soil infertility are becoming more serious, research should be carried out to solve these problems. Hence, mound or heap burning, an indigenous agricultural practice which is currently being conducted in some remote areas in the eastern part of Myanmar and other less developed countries in Asia and Africa, was studied in this research. In traditional mound burning (MB) practice in Myanmar, dried cow dung (CD) is burnt and covered with soil to form a mound. This research was conducted (1) to study the level of nutrient recovery from the indigenous practice of MB-CD; (2) to integrate the use of FS into the indigenous practice of MB-CD; (3) to identify the environmental challenges of the practice, such as pathogens contamination and air pollution; and (4) to investigate the perceptions of farmers toward the use of FS in their farms and of the consumers toward consuming FS-fertilized crops. This study found that plant nutrients such as available nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium were increased by approximately 8, 2 and 2 times, respectively, after the 3-month maturation period in both MB experiments with both FS and CD. Moreover, there was no detection of the total coliform, Escherichia coli bacteria and Ascaris lumbricoides eggs after MB of both FS and CD. The emission factors of CO, NOx, PM2.1 and PM10 from both MB-FS and MB-CD were found to have a relatively low impact on the environment compared with other burning processes. The perceptions of farmers in the study area also revealed that most of them preferred to use the dried/treated FS in their farms, which was similar to the perceptions of consumers. This research revealed that MB could recover the nutrients from both human and animal wastes, which could then be used as fertilizers applied in agricultural fields with less environmental impact from pathogen contamination and air pollution.

In Thailand and Vietnam, faecal sludge (FS) collection and transport services grow spontaneously without adequate business models, causing serious problems to human health and the environment. This study aimed to analyse business problems, business components with financial structure and propose a new conceptual business model. Primary, secondary business data and financial statement reports of 53 service cases were collected and analysed through field surveys, case investigations and questionnaires. The findings revealed the business problems, business components with financial structure of FS collection and transport services. The operation cost structure (7.1 to 13.5 US$/m3) and net profit (−65.8 to 11.1 US$/m3) comparison results suggested that ownership status was related to business performance. A new conceptual business model for FS collection and transport was proposed, comprising infrastructure, service, customer, finance, legislation and ownership. The proposed conceptual business model, qualitatively tested with cases in Finland, Thailand and Vietnam, proved its applicability to improve the FS collection and transport service efficiency in municipalities of low- and middle-income countries.