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Heterogeneous photocatalysis has emerged as a promising alternative for both micropollutant removal and bacterial inactivation under solar irradiation. Among a variety of photocatalysts explored in the literature, graphite carbon nitride (g-C3N4) is a metal-free semiconductor with acceptable chemical stability, low toxicity, and excellent cost-effectiveness. To minimize its high charge recombination rate and increase the photocatalyst adsorption capacity whilst keeping the metal-free photocatalyst system idea, we proposed the heterojunction formation of g-C3N4 with diamond nanocrystals (DNCs), also known as nanodiamonds. Samples containing different amounts of DNCs were assessed as photocatalysts for pollutant removal from water and as light-activated antibacterial agents against Staphylococcus sureus. The sample containing 28.3 wt.% of DNCs presented the best photocatalytic efficiency against methylene blue, removing 71% of the initial dye concentration after 120 min, with a pseudo-first-order kinetic and a constant rate of 0.0104 min−1, which is nearly twice the value of pure g-C3N4 (0.0059 min−1). The best metal-free photocatalyst was able to promote an enhanced reduction in bacterial growth under illumination, demonstrating its capability of photocatalytic inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus. The enhanced photocatalytic activity was discussed and attributed to (i) the increased adsorption capacity promoted by the presence of DNCs, (ii) the reduced charge recombination rate due to a type-II heterojunction formation, (iii) the enhanced light absorption effectiveness, and (iv) the better charge transfer resistance. These results show that g-C3N4/DNC are low-cost and metal-free photoactive catalysts for wastewater treatment and inactivation of bacteria.

The last decade has seen an increasingly large number of studies reporting on the development of novel small organic conjugated systems for mitochondrial imaging exploiting optical signal transduction pathways. Mitochondria are known to play a critical role in a number of key biological processes, including cellular metabolism. Importantly, irregularities on their working function are nowadays understood to be intimately linked to a range of clinical conditions, highlighting the importance of targeting mitochondria for therapeutic benefits. In this work we carry out an in-depth evaluation on the progress to date in the field to pave the way for the realization of superior alternatives to those currently existing. The manuscript is structured by commonly used chemical scaffolds and comprehensively covers key aspects factored in design strategies such as synthetic approaches as well as photophysical and biological characterization, to foster collaborative work among organic and physical chemists as well as cell biologists.

Triple negative or basal-like breast cancer (TNBC) is characterised by aggressive progression, lack of standard therapies and poorer overall survival rates for patients. The bad prognosis, high rate of relapse and resistance against anticancer drugs have been associated with a highly abnormal loss of redox control in TNBC cells. Here, we developed docetaxel (DTX)-loaded micellar-like nanoparticles (MLNPs), designed to address the aberrant TNBC biology through the placement of redox responsive cross-links designed into a terpolymer. The MLNPs were derived from poly(ethyleneglycol)-b-poly(lactide)-co-poly(N3-α-e-caprolactone) with a disulfide linker pendant from the caprolactone regions in order to cross-link adjacent chains. The terpolymer contained both polylactide and polycaprolactone to provide a balance of accessibility to reductive agents necessary to ensure stability in transit, but rapid micellar breakdown and concomitant drug release, when in breast cancer cells with increased levels of reducing agents. The empty MLNPs did not show any cytotoxicity in vitro in 2D monolayers of MDA-MB-231 (triple negative breast cancer), MCF7 (breast cancer) and MCF10A (normal breast epithelial cell line), whereas DTX-loaded reducible crosslinked MLNPs exhibited higher cytotoxicity against TNBC and breast cancer cells which present high intracellular levels of glutathione. Crosslinked and non-crosslinked MLNPs showed high and concentration-dependent cellular uptake in monolayers and tumour spheroids, including when assessed in co-cultures of TNBC cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts. DTX loaded crosslinked MLNPs showed the highest efficacy against 3D spheroids of TNBC, in addition the MLNPs also induced higher levels of apoptosis, as assessed by annexin V/PI assays and increased caspase 3/7 activity in MDA-MB-231 cells in comparison to cells treated with DTX-loaded un-crosslinked MLNP (used as a control) and free DTX. Taken together these data demonstrate that the terpolymer micellar-like nanoparticles with reducible crosslinks have high efficacy in both 2D and 3D in vitro cancer models by targeting the aberrant biology, i.e. loss of redox control of this type of tumour, thus may be promising and effective carrier systems for future clinical applications in TNBC.

Computed tomography (CT) is one of the most widespread imaging techniques in clinical use worldwide. CT contrast agents are administered to improve soft tissue contrast and highlight blood vessels. However, the range of CT contrast agents available in the clinic is limited and they suffer from short-circulation times and low k-edge values that result in the need for high doses for in vivo applications. Nanomaterials containing a mixture of electron-dense elements, such as BaYbF5 nanoparticles, have shown promise as more efficient CT contrast agents, but they require biocompatible coatings for biomedical applications. Here, we explore the use of a bifunctional PEG polymer (5 kDa) containing a terminal bisphosphonate (BP) anchor for efficient binding to the surface of BaYbF5 nanomaterials. The resulting PEG(5)-BP–BaYbF5 nanoparticles were synthesized and characterized using TEM, DLS, TGA, XRD and Z-potential measurements. Their in vitro stability was verified and their ability to produce CT contrast in a wide range of X-ray energies, covering preclinical and clinical scanners, was demonstrated. In vitro toxicity studies with PEG(5)-BP–BaYbF5 in the phagocytic pro-monocytic human cell line U937 did not identify toxic effects, even at high concentrations (30 mM). In vivo, PEG(5)-BP–BaYbF5 exhibited efficient CT contrast for angiography imaging, highlighting blood vessels and vascular organs, and long circulation times as expected from the PEG coating. However, at late time points (48 h), in vivo toxicity was observed. While the causes could not be completely elucidated, in vitro studies suggest that decomposition and release of Yb3+ and/or Ba2+ metal ions after decomposition of PEG(5)-BP–BaYbF5 may play a role. Overall, despite the promising CT contrast properties, our results suggest that BaYbF5 nanomaterials may suffer from significant long-term toxicities., PEG(5)-BP–BaYbF5 nanoparticles provide superior CT contrast and circulation time compared to clinically-used iodinated molecules, but suffer from unexpected in vivo toxicity.

Photoluminescent conjugated polymeric nanoparticles (CPNs) exhibit favourable properties as fluorescent probes due to their brightness, high photostability, tunable emission spectra and ease of surface modification. Potential cellular and clinical applications of these new diagnostic agents are easily envisioned, providing a rationale to study CPN biocompatibility. Here, stealth formulations of poly phenylene vinylene (PPV) and poly phenylene ethinylene (PPE) were manufactured and their interactions with human blood components assessed. CPNs were colloidally stable in isotonic fluids, but showed photoluminescence quenching in whole blood and plasma at levels as low as 10% supplementation. At concentrations >150 μg mL−1, stealth CPNs caused ∼10% erythrocyte haemolysis, which was likely due to unbound pegylated surfactant present in the formulation. Incubation of CPNs with both whole blood and isolated platelets showed no platelet activation, increases in platelet–monocyte aggregates or induction of platelet aggregation. Interestingly, PPE-CPN formulations inhibited adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-induced platelet aggregation in a dose-dependent manner, while PPV-CPNs did not show this effect. In conclusion, stealth CPN formulations exhibiting neutrally charged, pegylated surfaces do not stimulate platelet activation or aggregation, but may induce a low degree of haemolysis in the presence of free surfactant and can inhibit physiological mediators of platelet aggregation, such as ADP.

This work evaluated the photosensitizing activity of isomeric tetra-cationic porphyrins with peripheral [Pt(bpy)Cl]+ to control the larval population of Aedes aegypti by photodynamic action. The photolarvicidal activity of the tetra-platinated porphyrins at meta and para position (3-PtTPyP and 4-PtTPyP) was evaluated under blue (450 nm), green (525 nm), and red (625 nm) light illumination at 55.0 J cm−2. The meta isomer presented an efficient photolarvicidal activity even at a low concentration (1.2 ppm) in the presence of light, while the para counterpart was inactive regardless of the concentration and illumination. The different responses were related to the improved optical features and higher water solubility of 3-PtTPyP compared to 4-PtTPyP. Additionally, the potential environmental toxicity of 3-PtTPyP was tested in a plant model (Allium cepa test), with no toxicity detected for all used concentrations (1.2 to 12 ppm). Hence, this work reveals that 3-PtTPyP has a great potential to be employed to photodynamically control the insect vector population in an environmentally safe way.

Bioimaging enables the visualisation of biological processes at the microscopic and macroscopic levels, finding applications from cellular tracking to whole body scanning for diagnosis purposes. The different techniques developed to acquire images make use of most radiation types of the electromagnetic spectrum. Recently, there has been interest in non-ionising radiation imaging techniques that can offer improved detection or additional information about biological processes, and fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging have become an eminent field. Conjugated polymers are versatile materials for bioimaging due to their tailored absorption and emission spectra and applications in both fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging. This review gives an overview on bioimaging techniques, with a special focus on conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs), the different types of nanoparticle chemistries published and their preclinical safety assessment.

Combinations of conventional chemotherapeutics with unconventional anticancer agents such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species may offer treatment benefits for cancer therapies. Here we report a novel polymeric platform combining the delivery of Doxorubicin (DOXO) with the light-regulated release of nitric oxide (NO). An amphiphilic block-copolymer (P1) was designed and synthesized as the drug carrier, with pendant amine groups to attach DOXO via a urea linkage and a NO photodonor (NOPD) activable by visible light. The two grafted-copolymers (P1-DOXO and P1-NOPD) self-assembled via solvent displacement methods into nanoparticles (NPs), containing both therapeutic components (NP1) and, for comparison, the individual NOPD (NP2) and DOXO (NP3). All the NPs were fully characterized in terms of physicochemical, photochemical and photophysical properties. These experiments demonstrated that integration of the NOPD within the polymeric scaffold enhanced the NO photoreleasing efficiency when compared with the free NOPD, and that the proximity to DOXO on the polymer chains did not significantly affect the enhanced photochemical performance. Internalization of the NPs into lung, intestine, and skin cancer cell lines was investigated after co-formulation with Cy5 fluorescent tagged polymers, and cytotoxicity of the NPs against the same panel of cell lines was assessed under dark and light conditions. The overall results demonstrate effective cell internalization of the NPs and a notable enhancement in killing activity of the dual-action therapeutic NP1 when compared with NP2, NP3 and the free DOXO, respectively. This suggests that the combination of DOXO with photoregulated NO release, achieved through the mixed formulation strategy of tailored polymer conjugate NPs, may open new treatment modalities based on the use of NO to improve cancer therapies.

© 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Development of novel bioimaging materials that exhibit organelle specific accumulation continues to be at the forefront of research interests and efforts. Among the various subcellular organelles, mitochondria, which are found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, are of particular interest in relation to their vital function. To date, most molecular probes that target mitochondria utilise delocalised lipophilic cations such as triphenylphosphonium and pyridinium. However, the use of such charged motifs is known to be detrimental to the working function of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential and there remains a strong case for development of neutral mitochondrial fluorescent probes. Herein, we demonstrate for the first time the exploitation of diketopyrrolopyrrole-based chemistries for the realisation of a neutral fluorescent probe that exhibits organelle specific accumulation within the mitochondria at the nanomolar level. The synthesised probe, which bears a neutral triphenylphosphine oxide moiety, exhibits a large Stokes shift and high fluorescence quantum yield in water, both highly sought-after properties in the development of bioimaging agents. In vitro studies reveal no interference with cell metabolism when tested for the human MCF7 breast cancer cell and nanomolar subcellular organelle colocalisation with commercially available mitochondrial staining agent Mitotracker Red. In light of its novelty, neutral structure and the preferential accumulation at nanomolar concentrations we anticipate this work to be of significant interest for the increasingly larger community devoted to the realisation of neutral mitochondrial selective systems and more widely to those engaged in the rational development of superior organic architectures in the biological field.

In order for synthetic polymers to find widespread practical application as biomaterials, their syntheses must be easy to perform, utilising freely available building blocks, and should generate products which have no adverse effects on cells or tissue. In addition, it is highly desirable that the synthesis platform for the biomaterials can be adapted to generate polymers with a range of physical properties and macromolecular architectures, and with multiple functional handles to allow derivatisation with ‘actives’ for sensing or therapy. Here we describe the syntheses of amphiphilic tri- and tetra-block copolymers, using diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-5-ene (DBU) as a metal-free catalyst for ring-opening polymerisations of the widely-utilised monomer lactide combined with a functionalised protected cyclic carbonate. These syntheses employed PEGylated macroinitiators with varying chain lengths and architectures, as well as a labile-ester methacrylate initiator, and produced block copolymers with good control over monomer incorporation, molar masses, side-chain and terminal functionality and physico-chemical properties. Regardless of the nature of the initiators, the fidelity of the hydroxyl end group was maintained as confirmed by a second ROP chain extension step, and polymers with acryloyl/methacryloyl termini were able to undergo a second tandem reaction step, in particular thiol–ene click and RAFT polymerisations for the production of hyperbranched materials. Furthermore, the polymer side-chain functionalities could be easily deprotected to yield an active amine which could be subsequently coupled to a drug molecule in good yields. The resultant amphiphilic copolymers formed a range of unimolecular or kinetically-trapped micellar-like nanoparticles in aqueous environments, and the non-cationic polymers were all well-tolerated by MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The rapid and facile route to such highly adaptable polymers, as demonstrated here, offers promise for a range of bio materials applications.

Amphiphilic block co-polymers composed of poly(ethylene glycol)-co-poly(lactide)-co-poly(2-((tert-butoxycarbonyl)amino)-3-propyl carbonate) (PEG-pLA-pTBPC) are synthesized in monomer ratios and arrangements to enable assembly into nanoparticles with different sizes and architectures. These materials are based on components in clinical use, or known to be biodegradable, and retain the same fundamental chemistry across 'AB' and 'BAB' block architectures. In MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, nanoparticles of < 100 nm are internalized most rapidly, by both clathrin-and caveolin-mediated pathways. In THP-1 cells, polymer architecture and length of the hydrophilic block is the most important factor in the rate of internalization. The organ distributions of systemically injected nanoparticles in healthy mice indicate highest accumulation of the BAB-blocks in lungs and liver and the lowest accumulation in these organs of a methoxyPEG5000-pLA-pTBPC polymer. Conjugation of doxorubicin via a serum-stable urea linker to the carbonate regions of PEG5000-pLA-pTBPC generates self-assembling nanoparticles which are more cytotoxic in 2D, and penetrate further in 3D spheroids of triple negative breast cancer cells, than the free drug. In an aggressive orthotopic triple negative breast cancer mouse model, the methoxyPEG5000-pLA-pTBPC is of similar potency to free doxorubicin but with no evidence of adverse effects in terms of body weight.

Π-conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) are under investigation as photoluminescent agents for diagnostics and bioimaging. To determine whether the choice of surfactant can improve CPN properties and prevent protein adsorption, five non-ionic polyethylene glycol alkyl ether surfactants were used to produce CPNs from three representative π-conjugated polymers. The surfactant structure did not influence size or yield, which were dependent on the nature of the conjugated polymer. Hydrophobic interaction chromatography, contact angle, quartz crystal microbalance and neutron reflectivity studies were used to assess the affinity of the surfactant to the conjugated polymer surface, and indicated that all surfactants were displaced by the addition of a model serum protein. In summary, CPN preparation methods which rely on surface coating of a conjugated polymer core with amphiphilic surfactants may produce systems with good yields and colloidal stability in vitro, but may be susceptible to significant surface alterations in physiological fluids.

Conjugated polymers are of interest as optical imaging probes for clinical diagnostic applications. However, clinical translation requires not only an excellent optical performance, but also an established safety profile and scalable manufacturability. Taking these factors into account, a self-assembling nanoparticle system was designed utilising the amphiphilic diblock copolymer, PLGA-PEG, to encapsulate the red-emitting conjugated polymer, CN-PPV. Encapsulation of decreasing amounts of CN-PPV (50% to 5% w/w) resulted in a decrease in nanoparticle size and an increase in optical performance (quantum yield% ∼40%). All systems were colloidally and optically stable over 60 days at 37 °C. Optimized systems were then used to encapsulate small amounts (0.5-0.8% w/w) of small molecule near-infrared dyes, NIR680 and NIR720, generating systems with shifted emission peaks >700 nm. Optimised PLGA-PEG micelles containing 5% CN-PPV and 0.5% NIR720 showed enhanced characteristics, such as a high product yield (>90%), a narrow emission peak at 720 nm, a high quantum yield of 45%, a small hydrodynamic diameter (∼104 nm), and an enhanced cytocompatibility profile compared to other systems tested in this study, i.e. no reduction in cell viability and negligible impairment of mitochondrial acitivity at higher concentrations.

This study compares the performance of a microfluidic technique and a conventional bulk method to manufacture conjugated polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) embedded within a biodegradable poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PEG5K-PLGA55K) matrix. The influence of PEG5K-PLGA55K and conjugated polymers cyano-substituted poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (CN-PPV) and poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole) (F8BT) on the physicochemical properties of the CPNs was also evaluated. Both techniques enabled CPN production with high end product yields (∼70-95%). However, while the bulk technique (solvent displacement) under optimal conditions generated small nanoparticles (∼70-100 nm) with similar optical properties (quantum yields ∼35%), the microfluidic approach produced larger CPNs (140-260 nm) with significantly superior quantum yields (49-55%) and tailored emission spectra. CPNs containing CN-PPV showed smaller size distributions and tuneable emission spectra compared to F8BT systems prepared under the same conditions. The presence of PEG5K-PLGA55K did not affect the size or optical properties of the CPNs and provided a neutral net electric charge as is often required for biomedical applications. The microfluidics flow-based device was successfully used for the continuous preparation of CPNs over a 24 hour period. On the basis of the results presented here, it can be concluded that the microfluidic device used in this study can be used to optimize the production of bright CPNs with tailored properties with good reproducibility.

Conjugated polymer nanoparticles are being developed for a variety of diagnostic and theranostic applications. The conjugated polymer, F8BT, a polyfluorene derivative, was used as a model system to examine the biological behavior of conjugated polymer nanoparticle formulations stabilized with ionic (sodium dodecyl sulfate; F8BT-SDS; ∼207 nm; -31 mV) and nonionic (pegylated 12-hydroxystearate; F8BT-PEG; ∼175 nm; -5 mV) surfactants, and compared with polystyrene nanoparticles of a similar size (PS200; ∼217 nm; -40 mV). F8BT nanoparticles were as hydrophobic as PS200 (hydrophobic interaction chromatography index value: 0.96) and showed evidence of protein corona formation after incubation with serum-containing medium; however, unlike polystyrene, F8BT nanoparticles did not enrich specific proteins onto the nanoparticle surface. J774A.1 macrophage cells internalized approximately ∼20% and ∼60% of the F8BT-SDS and PS200 delivered dose (calculated by the ISDD model) in serum-supplemented and serum-free conditions, respectively, while cell association of F8BT-PEG was minimal (5% of the delivered dose). F8BT-PEG, however, was more cytotoxic (IC50 4.5 μg cm(-2)) than F8BT-SDS or PS200. The study results highlight that F8BT surface chemistry influences the composition of the protein corona, while the properties of the conjugated polymer nanoparticle surfactant stabilizer used determine particle internalization and biocompatibility profile.

O conhecimento do genoma humano e os avanços na biologia molecular levaram a descoberta de mecanismos celulares importantes. A terapia gênica surgiu com a proposta de interferir na fisiologia das células, que apresentam alguma disfunção causadora de uma doença, trazendo a possibilidade de tratamento para incontáveis enfermidades. Na tecnologia de RNA de interferência pequenos fragmentos de RNA de fita dupla (small interference RNA, siRNA) são utilizados para inibir a expressão de genes específicos. O olho tem sido um dos órgãos alvo para o uso desse tipo de tecnologia e, além disso, a córnea é uma membrana atrativa devido ao fácil acesso e a existência de diversas enfermidades que acometem a visão. Para aumentar a biodisponibilidade e viabilizar a administração de siRNA utilizando um polímero catiônico, uma formulação termorreversível com quitosana e outra composta de cristais líquidos funcionalizados com ácido hialurônico foram estudadas como possíveis sistemas de liberação ocular de siRNA, sendo que ambas são inéditas para aplicação tópica e oftálmica de siRNA. O gel termorreversível de poloxamer 407 foi associado a dois diferentes tipos de quitosana (LMW com 92,2% de desacetilação e MMW com 77,0% de desacetilação). Ambas as formulações apresentaram características desejáveis tanto como sistema de liberação de genes, tanto por apresentarem residual positivo e capacidade de complexar o siRNA, quanto como sistema compatível com via tópica ocular, devido ao comportamento reológico pseudoplástico. A quitosana LMW e a adição de NaCl à formulação alteraram a Tsol/gel do poloxamer; somente a associação com a quitosana MMW apresentou Tsol/gel adequada. Os sistemas contendo poloxamer em associação com os dois diferentes tipos de quitosana não promoveram a penetração do siRNA in vitro em córnea bovina nas condições experimentais utilizadas. O sistema líquido cristalino foi desenvolvido com monoleína (MO), polietilenimina (PEI), ácido hialurônico (HA) e fase aquosa. A formação de fases cristalinas foi avaliada por microscopia de luz polarizada e a estrutura das mesofases foi confirmada pela difração de raios X a baixo ângulo. O sistema líquido cristalino, composto de uma mistura de cristais de fase cúbica e hexagonal, foi disperso em nanopartículas de tamanho satisfatório, de aproximadamente 166 nm. Os sistemas apresentaram características desejáveis como sistema de liberação de genes, como potencial zeta adequado, capacidade de complexar sem degradar o siRNA e não foram citotóxicos em fibroblastos L929, além de serem compatíveis com a via ocular por serem isotônicos. A dispersão de cristais de MO/PEI foi capaz de transfectar as células L929, entretanto a incorporação do HA diminuiu a absorção celular, provavelmente devido ao elevado peso molecular do ácido hialurônico empregado. O presente estudo permite delinear o futuro desenvolvimento de formulações tópicas para administração de siRNA na córnea. The understanding of human genome and the evolvement of molecular biology led to discovery of important cellular mechanisms. Gene therapy has emerged as an approach to interfere with cell physiology, whenever it has a dysfunction that causes a disease, bringing new possibility of treatment to countless illnesses. In RNA interference mechanism, small double-stranded RNAs (small interference RNA, siRNA) inhibit specific gene expression. The eye has been one of the targeted organs for the use of such technology and, moreover, the corneal membrane is an attractive tissue due to the easy access and the existence of several diseases that can impair vision. To enhance bioavailability and facilitate the delivery of siRNA using a cationic polymer, a thermoreversible formulation containing chitosan and a liquid crystalline formulation functionalized hyaluronic acid were studied as potential delivery systems for ocular delivery of siRNA and both this systems are inedited as topical and ocular delivery of siRNA. A poloxamer 407 thermoreversible gel of was associated with two different types of chitosan (LMW with 92.2% deacetylation and MMW with 77.0% deacetylation). Both formulations showed desirable characteristics not only as gene delivery systems due to positive residual charge and capacity for complexing the siRNA, but also as a compatible ocular delivery system, due to pseudoplastic rheological behavior. The LMW chitosan and addition of NaCl to the formulation influenced the Tsol/gel of poloxamer gel; only the association with MMW chitosan showed desirable Tsol/gel. The systems containing poloxamer in combination with two different types of chitosan did not promote in vitro penetration of siRNA using bovine cornea under the used experimental conditions. The liquid crystalline system was developed with monoolein (MO), polyethylenimine (PEI), hyaluronic acid (HA) and aqueous phase. The formation of crystalline phases was observed by polarized light microscopy and the mesophases structures were confirmed by small angle X-ray diffraction. The liquid crystalline system composed of a mixture of hexagonal and cubic phases was dispersed into nanoparticles of suitable size, of approximately 166 nm. The formulations showed desirable characteristics as gene delivery systems, such as suitable zeta potential, ability to complex without degrading the siRNA and were not cytotoxic to fibroblasts L929, moreover, were compatible with the ocular administration due to isotonicity. The dispersion of crystals of MO/PEI was able to transfect L929 cells, however the incorporation of the HA decreased cellular uptake, probably due to high molecular weight hyaluronic acid employed. This study provides an outline for the future development of topical formulations to deliver siRNA to the cornea.

With the increasing number of studies proposing new and optimal delivery strategies for the efficacious silencing of gene-related diseases by the local administration of siRNAs, the present review aims to provide a broad overview of the most important and latest developments of non-viral siRNA delivery systems for local administration. Moreover, the main disease targets for the local delivery of siRNA to specific tissues or organs, including the skin, the lung, the eye, the nervous system, the digestive system and the vagina, were explored.