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Sore throat represents one of the main causes of antibiotic overprescription in children. Its management is still a matter of debate, with countries considering streptococcal pharyngotonsillitis a benign and self-limiting condition and others advocating for its antibiotic treatment to prevent suppurative complications and acute rheumatic fever. Italian paediatricians frequently prescribe antibiotics on a clinical basis regardless of microbiological results. Moreover, broad-spectrum antibiotics are inappropriately prescribed for this condition. In this regard, an intersociety consensus conference was issued to promote the judicious use of antibiotic therapy in paediatric outpatient settings. A systematic review of the literature was performed, and updated recommendations were developed according to the GRADE methodology. Antibiotic treatment with amoxicillin (50 mg/kg/day) for 10 days is recommended in all children with proven streptococcal pharyngitis. Benzathine-penicillin could be prescribed in children with impaired intestinal absorption or inability to tolerate enteral intake and in those at high risk of suppurative complications with low compliance to oral therapy. In children with suspected amoxicillin allergy, third-generation cefalosporins for five days are recommended in low-risk patients, and macrolides are recommended in high-risk ones. Candidates for tonsillectomy due to recurrent pharyngitis could be treated with amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, clindamycin, or combined therapy with amoxicillin plus rifampicin for four days, in an attempt to avoid surgery., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

This study aims to provide a comparison of the current recommendations about the management of acute pharyngitis. A literature search was conducted from January 2009 to 2023. Documents reporting recommendations on the management of acute pharyngitis were included, pertinent data were extracted, and a descriptive comparison of the different recommendations was performed. The quality of guidelines was assessed through the AGREE II instrument. Nineteen guidelines were included, and an overall moderate quality was found. Three groups can be distinguished: one group supports the antibiotic treatment of group A β-hemolytic Streptococcus (GABHS) to prevent acute rheumatic fever (ARF); the second considers acute pharyngitis a self-resolving disease, recommending antibiotics only in selected cases; the third group recognizes a different strategy according to the ARF risk in each patient. An antibiotic course of 10 days is recommended if the prevention of ARF is the primary goal; conversely, some guidelines suggest a course of 5-7 days, assuming the symptomatic cure is the goal of treatment. Penicillin V and amoxicillin are the first-line options. In the case of penicillin allergy, first-generation cephalosporins are a suitable choice. In the case of beta-lactam allergy, clindamycin or macrolides could be considered according to local resistance rates.    Conclusion: Several divergencies in the management of acute pharyngitis were raised among guidelines (GLs) from different countries, both in the diagnostic and therapeutic approach, allowing the distinction of 3 different strategies. Since GABHS pharyngitis could affect the global burden of GABHS disease, it is advisable to define a shared strategy worldwide. It could be interesting to investigate the following issues further: cost-effectiveness analysis of diagnostic strategies in different healthcare systems; local genomic epidemiology of GABHS infection and its complications; the impact of antibiotic treatment of GABHS pharyngitis on its complications and invasive GABHS infections; the role of GABHS vaccines as a prophylactic measure. The related results could aid the development of future recommendations. What is Known: • GABHS disease spectrum ranges from superficial to invasive infections and toxin-mediated diseases. • GABHS accounts for about 25% of sore throat in children and its management is a matter of debate. What is New: • Three strategies can be distinguished among current GLs: antibiotic therapy to prevent ARF, antibiotics only in complicated cases, and a tailored strategy according to the individual ARF risk. • The impact of antibiotic treatment of GABHS pharyngitis on its sequelae still is the main point of divergence; further studies are needed to achieve a global shared strategy., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Adequate complementary feeding practices are important for short- and long-term child health. In industrialized countries, the formulation of several commercial baby foods (CBFs) and an increase in their consumption has been noticed., Aim: To update and analyze the nutritional composition of CBFs available in the Italian market., Methods: Data collection carried out in two steps (July 2018-January 2019) and updated in May-September 2021. The information on CBFs was taken from the websites of the major CBF producers available in Italy. The collected information were: Suggested initial and final age of consumption; Ingredients; Energy value; Macronutrients (protein, lipids, and carbohydrates); Fiber; Micronutrients (sodium, iron, and calcium); Presence of salt and added sugars, flavorings, and other additives., Results: Time-space for which CBFs are recommended starts too early and ends too late; protein content is adequate and even too high in some food; Amount of fats and their quality must be improved, keeping the intake of saturated fats low; Sugar content is too high in too many CBFs and salt is unnecessarily present in some of them. Finally, the texture of too many products is purée, and its use is recommended for too long, hindering the development of infants' chewing abilities.

During the complementary feeding period, any nutritional deficiencies may negatively impact infant growth and neurodevelopment. A healthy diet containing all essential nutrients is strongly recommended by the WHO during infancy. Because vegetarian diets are becoming increasingly popular in many industrialized countries, some parents ask the pediatrician for a vegetarian diet, partially or entirely free of animal-source foods, for their children from an early age. This systematic review aims to evaluate the evidence on how vegetarian complementary feeding impacts infant growth, neurodevelopment, risk of wasted and/or stunted growth, overweight and obesity. The SR was registered with PROSPERO 2021 (CRD 42021273592). A comprehensive search strategy was adopted to search and find all relevant studies. For ethical reasons, there are no interventional studies assessing the impact of non-supplemented vegetarian/vegan diets on the physical and neurocognitive development of children, but there are numerous studies that have analyzed the effects of dietary deficiencies on individual nutrients. Based on current evidence, vegetarian and vegan diets during the complementary feeding period have not been shown to be safe, and the current best evidence suggests that the risk of critical micronutrient deficiencies or insufficiencies and growth retardation is high: they may result in significantly different outcomes in neuropsychological development and growth when compared with a healthy omnivorous diet such as the Mediterranean Diet. There are also no data documenting the protective effect of vegetarian or vegan diets against communicable diseases in children aged 6 months to 2-3 years.

Several institutions propose responsive feeding (RF) as the caregivers' relational standard when nurturing a child, from breast/formula feeding onwards. Previous systematic reviews (SRs) on caregivers' feeding practices (CFPs) have included studies on populations from countries with different cultures, rates of malnutrition, and incomes, whereas this SR compares different CFPs only in healthy children (4-24 months) from industrialized countries. Clinical questions were about the influence of different CFPs on several important outcomes, namely growth, overweight/obesity, risk of choking, dental caries, type 2 diabetes (DM2), and hypertension. The literature review does not support any Baby Led Weaning's or Baby-Led Introduction to SolidS' (BLISS) positive influence on children's weight-length gain, nor their preventive effect on future overweight/obesity. RF-CFPs can result in adequate weight gain and a lower incidence of overweight/obesity during the first two years of life, whereas restrictive styles and coercive styles, two kinds of non-RF in CF, can have a negative effect, favoring excess weight and lower weight, respectively. Choking risk: failure to supervise a child's meals by an adult represents the most important risk factor; no cause-effect relation between BLW/BLISS/RF/NRCF and choking could be found. Risks of DM2, hypertension, and caries: different CFPs cannot be considered as a risky or preventive factor for developing these conditions later in life.

No consensus currently exists on the appropriate age for the introduction of complementary feeding (CF). In this paper, a systematic review is conducted that investigates the effects of starting CF in breastfed and formula-fed infants at 4, 4-6, or 6 months of age (i) on growth at 12 months of age, (ii) on the development of overweight/obesity at 3-6 years of age, (iii) on iron status, and (iv) on the risk of developing (later in life) type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) and hypertension. An extensive literature search identified seven studies that evaluated the effects of the introduction of CF at the ages in question. No statistically significant differences related to the age at which CF is started were observed in breastfed or formula-fed infants in terms of the following: iron status, weight, length, and body mass index Z-scores (zBMI) at 12 months, and development of overweight/obesity at 3 years. No studies were found specifically focused on the age range for CF introduction and risk of DM2 and hypertension. Introducing CF before 6 months in healthy term-born infants living in developed countries is essentially useless, as human milk (HM) and formulas are nutritionally adequate up to 6 months of age.

Adequate and balanced nutrition is essential to promote optimal child growth and a long and healthy life. After breastfeeding, the second step is the introduction of complementary feeding (CF), a process that typically covers the period from 6 to 24 months of age. This process is, however, still highly controversial, as it is heavily influenced by socio-cultural choices, as well as by the availability of specific local foods, by family traditions, and pediatrician beliefs. The Società Italiana di Pediatria Preventiva e Sociale (SIPPS) together with the Federazione Italiana Medici Pediatri (FIMP), the Società Italiana per lo Sviluppo e le Origine della Salute e delle Malattie (SIDOHaD), and the Società Italiana di Nutrizione Pediatrica (SINUPE) have developed evidence-based recommendations for CF, given the importance of nutrition in the first 1000 days of life in influencing even long-term health outcomes. This paper includes 38 recommendations, all of them strictly evidence-based and overall addressed to developed countries. The recommendations in question cover several topics such as the appropriate age for the introduction of CF, the most appropriate quantitative and qualitative modalities to be chosen, and the relationship between CF and the development of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) later in life.

Purpose: Early detection of SARS-CoV-2 patients is essential to contain the pandemic and keep the hospital secure. The rapid antigen test seems to be a quick and easy diagnostic test to identify patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. To assess the possible role of the antigen test in the Emergency Department (ED) assessment of potential SARS-CoV-2 infection in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients., Methods: Between 1 July 2020 and 10 December 2020, all patients consecutively assessed in the ED for suspected COVID-19 symptoms or who required hospitalisation for a condition not associated with COVID-19 were subjected to a rapid antigen test and RT-PCR swab. The diagnostic accuracy of the antigen test was determined in comparison to the SARS-CoV-2 PCR test using contingency tables. The possible clinical benefit of the antigen test was globally evaluated through decision curve analysis (DCA)., Results: A total of 3899 patients were subjected to antigen tests and PCR swabs. The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the antigen test were 82.9%, 99.1% and 97.4% (Cohen's K = 0.854, 95% CI 0.826-0.882, p < 0.001), respectively. In symptomatic patients, sensitivity was found to be 89.8%, while in asymptomatic patients, sensitivity was 63.1%. DCA appears to confirm a net clinical benefit for the preliminary use of antigen tests., Conclusions: The antigen test performed in the ED, though not ideal, can improve the overall identification of infected patients. While it appears to perform well in symptomatic patients, in asymptomatic patients, although it improves their management, it seems not to be definitive., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None declared., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Suboptimal nutrient quality/quantity during complementary feeding (CF) can impact negatively on infants' healthy growth, even with adequate energy intake. CF must supplement at best human milk (HM) or formulas, which show nutritional differences. Considering this, a differentiated CF is probably advisable to correctly satisfy the different nutritional needs. To assess whether current needs at 6-24 months of age can still be met by one single CF scheme or different schemes are needed for breastfed vs. formula/cow's milk (CM) fed infants, protein, iron and calcium intakes were assessed from daily menus using the same type and amount of solid food, leaving same amounts of HM and follow-up formula at 9 and again 18 months of age, when unmodified CM was added. Depending on the child's age, calcium- and iron-fortified cereals or common retail foods were used. The single feeding scheme keeps protein intake low but higher than recommended, in HM-fed children while in formula/CM-fed ones, it achieves much higher protein intakes. Iron Population Recommended Intake (PRI) and calcium Adequate Intakes (AI) are met at the two ages only when a formula is used; otherwise, calcium-fortified cereals are needed. ESPGHAN statements on the futility of proposing different CF schemes according to the milk type fed do not allow to fully meet the nutritional recommendations issued by major Agencies/Organizations/Societies for all children of these age groups.

Aim: To assess whether the application of a non-invasive tool, such as ratio of oxygen saturation (ROX) index, during triage can identify patients with COVID-19 at high risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)., Design: A multi-centre, observational, retrospective study., Methods: Only COVID-19 positive patients who required an emergency department evaluation for dyspnoea were considered. The primary objective of the study was to compare the ROX value obtained during triage with the medical diagnosis of ARDS and intubation in 72 h of the triage evaluation. The ROX index value was also compared with objective outcomes, such as the pressure of arterial O 2 (PaO 2 )/fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO 2 ) ratio and the lung parenchyma volume involved in COVID-19-related inflammatory processes, based on 3D reconstructions of chest computed tomography (CT)., Results: During the study period, from 20 March 2020 until 31 May 2020, a total of 273 patients with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection were enrolled. The predictive ability of ROX for the risk of developing ARDS in 72 h after triage evaluation was associated with an area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) of 0.845 (0.797-0.892, p < 0.001), whereas the AUROC value was 0.727 (0.634-0.821, p < 0.001) for the risk of intubation. ROX values were strongly correlated with PaO 2 /FiO 2 values (r = 0.650, p < 0.001), decreased ROX values were associated with increased percentages of lung involvement based on 3D CT reconstruction (r = -0.371, p < 0.001)., Conclusion: The ROX index showed a good ability to identify triage patients at high evolutionary risk. Correlations with objective but more invasive indicators (PaO 2 /FiO 2 and CT) confirmed the important role of ROX in identifying COVID-19 patients with extensive pathological processes., Impact: During the difficult triage evaluation of COVID-19 patients, the ROX index can help the nurse to identify the real severity of the patient. The triage systems could integrate the ROX in the rapid patient assessment to stratify patients more accurately., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: In 2019, a multidisciplinary panel of experts from eight Italian scientific paediatric societies developed a consensus document for the use of inhaled corticosteroids in the management and prevention of the most common paediatric airways disorders. The aim is to provide healthcare providers with a multidisciplinary document including indications useful in the clinical practice. The consensus document was intended to be addressed to paediatricians who work in the Paediatric Divisions, the Primary Care Services and the Emergency Departments, as well as to Residents or PhD students, paediatric nurses and specialists or consultants in paediatric pulmonology, allergy, infectious diseases, and ear, nose, and throat medicine., Methods: Clinical questions identifying Population, Intervention(s), Comparison and Outcome(s) were addressed by methodologists and a general agreement on the topics and the strength of the recommendations (according to the GRADE system) was obtained following the Delphi method. The literature selection included secondary sources such as evidence-based guidelines and systematic reviews and was integrated with primary studies subsequently published., Results: The expert panel provided a number of recommendations on the use of inhaled corticosteroids in preschool wheezing, bronchial asthma, allergic and non-allergic rhinitis, acute and chronic rhinosinusitis, adenoid hypertrophy, laryngitis and laryngospasm., Conclusions: We provided a multidisciplinary update on the current recommendations for the management and prevention of the most common paediatric airways disorders requiring inhaled corticosteroids, in order to share useful indications, identify gaps in knowledge and drive future research.

Objective: The pathophysiology of functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) is associated with dysfunction at various levels of the gut-brain axis. Hypervigilance can result in an increased tendency to report pain. In the present study, we aimed to explore whether hypervigilance can influence attentional processing in postural control in children with FGIDs., Patients and Methods: Fifty-nine participants classified into healthy subjects, those with FGIDs, and those with organic diseases (Org) based on Rome IV criteria were enrolled. Postural control under 6 sensory conditions was evaluated using a stabilometric platform. The mean velocity of the center of pressure (CoP) displacement in the anteroposterior direction and the mediolateral direction, the length of the CoP trajectory, and the sway area were also measured., Results: With visual and somatosensorial normal inputs, participants with FGIDs showed a higher number of anteroposterior (FGIDs: 4[interquartile range [IQR] 3-7], control [Cntl] 3 [IQR 3-4], P  < 0.05) latero-lateral oscillations (FGIDs: 3 [IQR 3-6], Cntl 3 [IQR 2-3], P  < 0.05) and a higher perimeter value (FGIDs: 148 [IQR 121-240], Cntl 124 [IQR 111-140], P  = 0.056) compared to healthy subjects. With normal visual but altered somatosensorial input, subjects with FGIDs showed higher values of all parameters (anteroposterior: FGIDs 6[IQR 5-8], Cntl and Org 5 [IQR 4-6], P  < 0.05; latero-lateral FGIDs 6 [IQR 4-8], Cntl 4 [IQR 4-5], Org 4[IQR 3-5], P  < 0.05; perimeter FGIDs 253 [IQR 167-305], Cntl 185 [IQR 161-217], Org 176 [IQR 142-219], P  < 0.05; area FGIDs 98 [IQR 81-233], Cntl 86 [IQR 59-114], Org 56 [IQR 41-97], P < 0.05)., Conclusions: The higher number of oscillations in subjects with FGIDs who had normal visual input could be expression of alteration in attention and therefore hypervigilance as hypothesized in the context of gut-brain axis alterations., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2020 by European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition and North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition.)

Objective: To establish the relationship between vitamin D serum levels, pulmonary function, asthma control, and passive smoking exposure in children with asthma., Methods: We studied the relationship between 25-hydroxy cholecalciferol (25[OH]D) concentrations and baseline spirometry and levels of asthma control, and the effect of parental tobacco smoke exposure in 152 white children (84 boys [55.3%]) with a mean age ± standard deviation of 9.9 ± 2.0 years (range 5-15 years) in a cross-sectional study carried out during the winter and early spring., Results: Only 9.9% of our children had a sufficient serum 25(OH)D level (at least 30-40 ng/mL). A significant positive correlation was found between the force vital capacity % predicted, forced expiratory volume in the first second of expiration % predicted, and serum 25(OH)D level (r = 0.36, p < 0.001 for both). The subjects with controlled asthma had higher serum levels of 25(OH)D than children with partially controlled or noncontrolled asthma, both according to Global Initiative for Asthma parameters and the Test for the control of asthma in childhood (p = 0.011). Children with both nonsmoking parents presented significantly higher serum levels of 25(OH)D than children with both smoking parents (median, 20.5 ng/mL [interquartile range {IQR}, 16.6-24.0 ng/mL] versus median, 14.5 ng/mL [IQR, 11.1-19.1 ng/mL], respectively; p < 0.001), with intermediate values for children exposed to single maternal (median, 20.3 ng/mL [IQR, 13.0-23.2 ng/mL]) or to paternal smoking (median, 17.8 ng/mL [IQR, 14.7-22.1 ng/mL])., Conclusion: Our results indicated that hypovitaminosis D was frequent in children with asthma who lived in a Mediterranean country. In these children, lower levels of vitamin D were associated with reduced asthma control and passive smoking exposure.

Wheezing is a common condition in pediatric practice, it can be defined as a musical sound, high-pitched and continuous, emitting from the chest during breath exhalation. Although almost 50% of children experiences wheeze in the first 6 years of life, only 40% of them will report continued wheezing symptoms after childhood. The classification of wheeze in preschool children is more difficult compared to school aged children. It is based on the onset and duration of symptoms and divided children in three categories: transient early wheezing, non-atopic wheezing and atopic wheezing/asthma. History and physical examination, skin prick test, exhaled nitric oxide, lung function test are the parameter to evaluate children with wheezing. The aim of management of wheezing is to finalize the control of symptoms, reduce exacerbations and improve the quality of life. All guidelines underline the complexity in making a diagnosis of asthma under five years and the need to identify phenotypes that may help paediatricians in the therapeutic choices., (© 2013.)

Epigenetics has recently been considered as a potential mechanism involved in the development of many disorders, including allergic diseases. Animal models have shown that environmental factors such as maternal tobacco smoke or mechanical ventilation can alter gene transcription and consequently the structure and function of lungs. Moreover, asthma and other allergic diseases (atopic dermatitis and food allergy) are influenced by epigenetics. In fact, the exposure to environmental factors during early childhood may induce a long-lasting altered genetic state adapting to a persistent "Th2 state" thus influencing the development of asthma or atopic dermatitis and food allergy if alterations involve the filaggrin gene. In conclusion, progresses have been made linking environmental pollution, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and diet exposure with atopy through epigenetic mechanisms. Furthermore, considerable advances have been made implicating epigenetic mechanisms in T cell differentiation. However, much more research is still needed, in particular to define the clinical consequences of such epigenetic alterations., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

According to the Barker hypothesis, the period of pregnancy and the intrauterine environment are crucial to the tendency to develop diseases like hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, metabolic disorders, pulmonary, renal and mental illnesses. The external environment affects the development of a particular phenotype suitable for an environment with characteristics that closely resemble intrauterine conditions. If the extra-uterine environment differs greatly from the intra-uterine one, the fetus is more prone to develop disease. Subsequent studies have shown that maternal diseases like depression and anxiety, epilepsy, asthma, anemia and metabolic disorders, like diabetes, are able to determine alterations in growth and fetal development. Similarly, the maternal lifestyle, particularly diet, exercise and smoking during pregnancy, have an important role in determining the risk to develop diseases that manifest themselves both during childhood and particularly in adulthood. Finally, there are abundant potential sources of pollutants, both indoor and outdoor, in the environment in which the child lives, which can contribute to an increased probability to the development of several diseases and that in some cases could be easily avoided.

Background: In primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) lung damage is usually evaluated by high-resolution CT (HRCT)., Objective: To evaluate whether HRCT abnormalities and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection were better predicted by spirometry or plethysmography., Methods: A cross-sectional study performed in consecutive patients with PCD who underwent sputum culture, spirometry, plethysmography and HRCT within 48 h. Principal component analysis and soft computing were used for data evaluation., Results: Fifty patients (26 children) were studied. P aeruginosa infection was found in 40% of the patients and bronchiectasis in 88%. There was a correlation between infection with P aeruginosa and extent of bronchiectasis (p=0.009; r =0.367) and air-trapping (p=0.03; r =0.315). Moreover, there was an association between infection with P aeruginosa and residual volume (RV) values >150% (p=0.04) and RV/total lung capacity (TLC) ratio >140% (p=0.001), but not between infection with P aeruginosa and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV(1))<80%, or forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of forced vital capacity (FVC) (FEF(25-75%))<70% or FEV(1)/FVC<70% (<80% in children). Severity of the total lung impairment on chest HRCT directly correlated with RV when expressed as per cent predicted (p=0.003; r =0.423), and RV/TLC (p<0.001; r =0.513) or when expressed as z scores (p=0.002, r =0.451 and p<0.001, r =0.536 respectively). Principal component analysis on plethysmographic but not on spirometry data allowed recognition of different severities of focal air trapping, atelectasis and extent of bronchiectasis., Conclusions: Plethysmography better predicts HRCT abnormalities than spirometry. Whether it might be a useful test to define populations of patients with PCD who should or should not have HRCT scans requires further longitudinal studies.

Asthma is universally considered a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways. Several noninvasive markers, such as exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and exhaled breath temperature (PletM), have been proposed to evaluate the degree of airway inflammation and remodeling in asthmatic children. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between diffusion lung capacity of carbon monoxide (DLCO) and these inflammatory markers in asthmatic children. We compared data of FeNO, PletM, and DLCO collected in 35 asthmatic children at admission (T0) and discharge (T1) after a period spent in a dust-mite-free environment (Misurina, Italian Dolomites, 1756 m). PletM showed a reduction from 29.48°C at T0 to 29.13°C at T1 (p = 0.17); DLCO passed from 93 to 102 (p = 0.085). FeNO mean value was 29.7 ppb at admission and 18.9 ppb at discharge (p = 0.014). Eosinophil mean count in induced sputum was 4 at T0 and 2 at T1 (p = 0.004). Spearman standardization coefficient beta was 0.414 between eosinophils and FeNO and -0.278 between eosinophils and DLCO. Pearson's correlation index between DLCO and PletM was -0.456 (p = 0.019). A negative correlation between DLCO and PletM was found. However, DLCO did not show a significant correlation with FeNO and eosinophils in the airways. Additional studies are needed to clarify the role of DLCO as a potential tool in monitoring childhood asthma.

Background: Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a symptomatic disorder of the nose induced after allergen exposure by an IgE-mediated inflammation of the nasal mucosa. This study was designed to investigate the role of nasal mucosa temperature in AR., Methods: We investigated the relationship between eosinophilic infiltration, nasal obstruction, and nasal mucosa temperature in 35 children with rhinitis aged 6-12 years., Results: A significant relationship was shown between nasal temperature values and eosinophil infiltration at nasal cytology (p < 0.01). Nasal temperature was also significantly associated with nasal obstruction, assessed in terms of nasal volume (Vol [2-5 cm]; p < 0.05) and minimum cross-sectional area (p < 0.01). No significant correlation emerged between the degree of nasal obstruction and presence of eosinophils at nasal cytology (p > 0.05)., Conclusion: These results suggest a relationship between nasal temperature and nasal mucosa inflammation and obstruction.