59 results on '"Tewari-Singh N"'
Search Results
2. P05-08 Role of mast cells in vesicating chemical threat agents induced skin toxicity
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Tewari-Singh, N., primary, Goswami, D., additional, Madadgar, O., additional, Singh, S., additional, Roney, A., additional, Lundback, S., additional, Wright, H., additional, Croutch, C., additional, and Brown, J., additional
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- 2022
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3. Use of a herbicide or lysine plus threonine for non-antibiotic selection of transgenic chickpea
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Tewari-Singh, N., Sen, J., Kiesecker, H., Reddy, V. S., Jacobsen, H.-J., and Guha-Mukherjee, S.
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- 2004
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4. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha induces endothelial dysfunction in Leprdb mice.
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Gao X, Belmadani S, Picchi A, Xu X, Potter BJ, Tewari-Singh N, Capobianco S, Chilian WM, and Zhang C
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- 2007
5. P07-21 Chloropicrin induces transcriptional changes in mouse cornea.
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Okoyeocha, O.E., Paithankar, S., Roney, A., Madigan, C., Chen, B., Liby, K., and Tewari-Singh, N.
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CHLOROPICRIN , *CORNEA , *MICE - Published
- 2024
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6. P07-22 Dermal and pulmonary injury induced by acute cutaneous nitrogen mustard exposure.
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Roney, A., Goswami, D., Masino, B., Lewandowski, R., Okoyeocha, E., Madadgar, O., Lundback, S., Veluru, S., Kim, E., Wagner, J., Harkema, J., Brown, J., and Tewari-Singh, N.
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NITROGEN mustards , *WOUNDS & injuries - Published
- 2024
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7. Chloropicrin induced ocular injury: Biomarkers, potential mechanisms, and treatments.
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Okoyeocha EOM and Tewari-Singh N
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- Humans, Animals, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Eye Injuries chemically induced, Biomarkers, Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated toxicity
- Abstract
Ocular tissue, especially the cornea, is overly sensitive to chemical exposures. The availability and adoption of chemical threat agent chloropicrin (CP) is growing in the United States as a pesticide and fumigant; thereby increasing the risk of its use in warfare, terrorist attacks and non-intentional exposure. Exposure to CP results in immediate ocular, respiratory, and dermal injury; however, we lack knowledge on its mechanism of toxicity as well as of its breakdown products like chlorine and phosgene, and effective therapies are elusive. Herein, we have reviewed the recent findings on exposure route, toxicity and likely mechanisms of CP induced ocular toxicity based on other vesicating chemical warfare agents that cause ocular injury. We have focused on the implication of their toxicity and mechanistic outcomes in the ocular tissue, especially the cornea, which could be useful in the development of broad-spectrum effective therapeutic options. We have discussed on the potential countermeasures, overall hallmarks and challenges involved in studying ocular injuries from chemical threat agent exposures. Finally, we reviewed useful available technologies and methods that can assist in the identification of effective medical countermeasures for chemical threat agents related ocular injuries., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
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- 2024
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8. Dexamethasone targets actin cytoskeleton signaling and inflammatory mediators to reverse sulfur mustard-induced toxicity in rabbit corneas.
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Kant R, Mishra N, Kandhari K, Saba L, Michel C, Reisdorph R, Tewari-Singh N, Pantcheva MB, Petrash JM, Agarwal C, and Agarwal R
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- Animals, Rabbits, Inflammation Mediators metabolism, Actins metabolism, Chromatography, Liquid, Proteomics, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Cornea metabolism, Actin Cytoskeleton metabolism, Dexamethasone adverse effects, Mustard Gas toxicity, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Corneal Injuries chemically induced, Corneal Injuries drug therapy
- Abstract
Purpose: Sulfur mustard (SM), a bi-functional alkylating agent, was used during World War I and the Iran-Iraq war. SM toxicity is ten times higher in eyes than in other tissues. Cornea is exceptionally susceptible to SM-injuries due to its anterior positioning and mucous-aqueous interphase. Ocular SM exposure induces blepharitis, photosensitivity, dry eye, epithelial defects, limbal ischemia and stem cell deficiency, and mustard gas keratopathy leading to temporary or permanent vision impairments. We demonstrated that dexamethasone (Dex) is a potent therapeutic intervention against SM-induced corneal injuries; however, its mechanism of action is not well known. Investigations employing proteomic profiling (LC-MS/MS) to understand molecular mechanisms behind SM-induced corneal injury and Dex efficacy were performed in the rabbit cornea exposed to SM and then received Dex treatment. PEAKS studio was used to extract, search, and summarize peptide identity. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis was used for pathway identification. Validation was performed using immunofluorescence. One-Way ANOVA (FDR < 0.05; p < 0.005) and Student's t-test (p < 0.05) were utilized for analyzing proteomics and IF data, respectively. Proteomic analysis revealed that SM-exposure upregulated tissue repair pathways, particularly actin cytoskeleton signaling and inflammation. Prominently dysregulated proteins included lipocalin2, coronin1A, actin-related protein2, actin-related protein2/3 complex subunit2, actin-related protein2/3 complex subunit4, cell division cycle42, ezrin, bradykinin/kininogen1, moesin, and profilin. Upregulated actin cytoskeleton signaling increases F-actin formation, dysregulating cell shape and motility. Dex reversed SM-induced increases in the aforementioned proteins levels to near control expression profiles. Dex aids corneal wound healing and improves corneal integrity via actin cytoskeletal signaling and anti-inflammatory effects following SM-induced injuries., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
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- 2024
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9. Dermal Exposure to Vesicating Nettle Agent Phosgene Oxime: Clinically Relevant Biomarkers and Skin Injury Progression in Murine Models.
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Goswami DG, Singh SK, Okoyeocha EOM, Roney AK, Madadgar O, Tuttle R, Sosna W, Anantharam P, Croutch CR, Agarwal R, and Tewari-Singh N
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- Animals, Mice, Disease Models, Animal, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Skin, Irritants toxicity, Erythema chemically induced, Erythema pathology, Biomarkers, Oximes toxicity, Phosgene toxicity, Mustard Gas toxicity, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity
- Abstract
Phosgene oxime (CX), categorized as a vesicating chemical threat agent, causes effects that resemble an urticant or nettle agent. CX is an emerging potential threat agent that can be deployed alone or with other chemical threat agents to enhance their toxic effects. Studies on CX-induced skin toxicity, injury progression, and related biomarkers are largely unknown. To study the physiologic changes, skin clinical lesions and their progression, skin exposure of SKH-1 and C57BL/6 mice was carried out with vapor from 10 μ l CX for 0.5-minute or 1.0-minute durations using a designed exposure system for consistent CX vapor exposure. One-minute exposure caused sharp (SKH-1) or sustained (C57BL/6) decrease in respiratory and heart rate, leading to mortality in both mouse strains. Both exposures caused immediate blanching, erythema with erythematous ring (wheel) and edema, and an increase in skin bifold thickness. Necrosis was also observed in the 0.5-minute CX exposure group. Both mouse strains showed comparative skin clinical lesions upon CX exposure; however, skin bifold thickness and erythema remained elevated up to 14 days postexposure in SKH-1 mice but not in C57BL/6 mice. Our data suggest that CX causes immediate changes in the physiologic parameters and gross skin lesions resembling urticaria, which could involve mast cell activation and intense systemic toxicity. This novel study recorded and compared the progression of skin injury to establish clinical biomarkers of CX dermal exposure in both the sexes of two murine strains relevant for skin and systemic injury studies and therapeutic target identification. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Phosgene oxime (CX), categorized as a vesicating agent, is considered as a potent chemical weapon and is of high military and terrorist threat interest since it produces rapid onset of severe injury as an urticant. However, biomarkers of clinical relevance related to its toxicity and injury progression are not studied. Data from this study provide useful clinical markers of CX skin toxicity in mouse models using a reliable CX exposure system for future mechanistic and efficacy studies., (Copyright © 2024 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)
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- 2024
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10. Nitrogen Mustard-Induced Ex Vivo Human Cornea Injury Model and Therapeutic Intervention by Dexamethasone.
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Mishra N, Kant R, Kandhari K, Ammar DA, Tewari-Singh N, Pantcheva MB, Petrash JM, Agarwal C, and Agarwal R
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- Animals, Humans, Rabbits, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Irritants adverse effects, Ligands, Cornea, Dexamethasone pharmacology, Dexamethasone therapeutic use, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Corneal Injuries chemically induced, Corneal Injuries drug therapy, Corneal Injuries metabolism, Mustard Gas toxicity
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM), a vesicating agent first used during World War I, remains a potent threat as a chemical weapon to cause intentional/accidental chemical emergencies. Eyes are extremely susceptible to SM toxicity. Nitrogen mustard (NM), a bifunctional alkylating agent and potent analog of SM, is used in laboratories to study mustard vesicant-induced ocular toxicity. Previously, we showed that SM-/NM-induced injuries (in vivo and ex vivo rabbit corneas) are reversed upon treatment with dexamethasone (DEX), a US Food and Drug Administration-approved, steroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Here, we optimized NM injuries in ex vivo human corneas and assessed DEX efficacy. For injury optimization, one cornea (randomly selected from paired eyes) was exposed to NM: 100 nmoles for 2 hours or 4 hours, and 200 nmoles for 2 hours, and the other cornea served as a control. Injuries were assessed 24 hours post NM-exposure. NM 100 nmoles exposure for 2 hours was found to cause optimal corneal injury (epithelial thinning [∼69%]; epithelial-stromal separation [6-fold increase]). In protein arrays studies, 24 proteins displayed ≥40% change in their expression in NM exposed corneas compared with controls. DEX administration initiated 2 hours post NM exposure and every 8 hours thereafter until 24 hours post-exposure reversed NM-induced corneal epithelial-stromal separation [2-fold decrease]). Of the 24 proteins dysregulated upon NM exposure, six proteins (delta-like canonical Notch ligand 1, FGFbasic, CD54, CCL7, endostatin, receptor tyrosine-protein kinase erbB-4) associated with angiogenesis, immune/inflammatory responses, and cell differentiation/proliferation, showed significant reversal upon DEX treatment (Student's t test; P ≤ 0.05). Complementing our animal model studies, DEX was shown to mitigate vesicant-induced toxicities in ex vivo human corneas. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nitrogen mustard (NM) exposure-induced injuries were optimized in an ex vivo human cornea culture model and studies were carried out at 24 h post 100 nmoles NM exposure. Dexamethasone (DEX) administration (started 2 h post NM exposure and every 8 h thereafter) reversed NM-induced corneal injuries. Molecular mediators of DEX action were associated with angiogenesis, immune/inflammatory responses, and cell differentiation/proliferation, indicating DEX aids wound healing via reversing vesicant-induced neovascularization (delta-like canonical Notch ligand 1 and FGF basic) and leukocyte infiltration (CD54 and CCL7)., (Copyright © 2024 by The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.)
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- 2024
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11. Establishing a Dexamethasone Treatment Regimen To Alleviate Sulfur Mustard-Induced Corneal Injuries in a Rabbit Model.
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Mishra N, Kant R, Kandhari K, Tewari-Singh N, Anantharam P, Croutch CR, Pantcheva MB, Petrash JM, Araj H, Agarwal C, and Agarwal R
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- Animals, Rabbits, Cornea, Dexamethasone pharmacology, Mustard Gas toxicity, Mustard Gas metabolism, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Corneal Injuries metabolism, Corneal Injuries pathology
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is an ominous chemical warfare agent. Eyes are extremely susceptible to SM toxicity; injuries include inflammation, fibrosis, neovascularization (NV), and vision impairment/blindness, depending on the exposure dosage. Effective countermeasures against ocular SM toxicity remain elusive and are warranted during conflicts/terrorist activities and accidental exposures. We previously determined that dexamethasone (DEX) effectively counters corneal nitrogen mustard toxicity and that the 2-hour postexposure therapeutic window is most beneficial. Here, the efficacy of two DEX dosing frequencies [i.e., every 8 or 12 hours (initiated, as previously established, 2 hours after exposure)] until 28 days after SM exposure was assessed. Furthermore, sustained effects of DEX treatments were observed up to day 56 after SM exposure. Corneal clinical assessments (thickness, opacity, ulceration, and NV) were performed at the day 14, 28, 42, and 56 post-SM exposure time points. Histopathological assessments of corneal injuries (corneal thickness, epithelial degradation, epithelial-stromal separation, inflammatory cell, and blood vessel counts) using H&E staining and molecular assessments (COX-2, MMP-9, VEGF, and SPARC expressions) were performed at days 28, 42, and 56 after SM exposure. Statistical significance was assessed using two-way ANOVA, with Holm-Sidak post hoc pairwise multiple comparisons; significance was established if P < 0.05 (data represented as the mean ± S.E.M.). DEX administration every 8 hours was more potent than every 12 hours in reversing ocular SM injury, with the most pronounced effects observed at days 28 and 42 after SM exposure. These comprehensive results are novel and provide a comprehensive DEX treatment regimen (therapeutic-window and dosing-frequency) for counteracting SM-induced corneal injuries. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The study aims to establish a dexamethasone (DEX) treatment regimen by comparing the efficacy of DEX administration at 12 versus 8 hours initiated 2 hours after exposure. DEX administration every 8 hours was more effective in reversing sulfur mustard (SM)-induced corneal injuries. SM injury reversal during DEX administration (initial 28 days after exposure) and sustained [further 28 days after cessation of DEX administration (i.e., up to 56 days after exposure)] effects were assessed using clinical, pathophysiological, and molecular biomarkers., (U.S. Government work not protected by U.S. copyright.)
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- 2024
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12. Metabolomics for identifying pathways involved in vesicating agent lewisite-induced corneal injury.
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Mishra N, Kant R, Goswami DG, Petrash JM, Agarwal C, Tewari-Singh N, and Agarwal R
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- Animals, Rabbits, Irritants adverse effects, Irritants metabolism, Chromatography, Liquid, Proteomics, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Cornea metabolism, Inflammation metabolism, Nucleotides adverse effects, Nucleotides metabolism, Lipids, Corneal Injuries chemically induced, Corneal Injuries metabolism, Arsenicals adverse effects, Arsenicals metabolism
- Abstract
Lewisite (LEW) is an arsenical vesicant that can be a potentially dangerous chemical warfare agent (CWA). Eyes are particularly susceptible to vesicant induced injuries and ocular LEW exposure can act swiftly, causing burning of eyes, edema, inflammation, cell death and even blindness. In our previous studies, we developed a LEW exposure-induced corneal injury model in rabbit and showed increased inflammation, neovascularization, cell death, and structural damage to rabbit corneas upon LEW exposure. In the present study, we further assessed the metabolomic changes to delineate the possible mechanisms underlying the LEW-induced corneal injuries. This information is vital and could help in the development of effective targeted therapies against ocular LEW injuries. Thus, the metabolomic changes associated with LEW exposures in rabbit corneas were assessed as a function of time, to delineate pathways from molecular perturbations at the genomic and proteomic levels. New Zealand white rabbit corneas (n = 3-6) were exposed to LEW vapor (0.2 mg/L; flow rate: 300 ml/min) for 2.5 min (short exposure; low dose) or 7.5 min (long-exposure; high dose) and then collected at 1, 3, 7, or 14 days post LEW exposure. Samples were prepared using the automated MicroLab STAR® system, and proteins precipitated to recover the chemically diverse metabolites. Metabolomic analysis was carried out by reverse phase UPLC-MS/MS and gas chromatography (GC)-MS. The data obtained were analyzed using Metabolon's software. The results showed that LEW exposures at high doses were more toxic, particularly at the day 7 post exposure time point. LEW exposure was shown to dysregulate metabolites associated with all the integral functions of the cornea and cause increased inflammation and immune response, as well as generate oxidative stress. Additionally, all important metabolic functions of the cells were also affected: lipid and nucleotide metabolism, and energetics. The high dose LEW exposures were more toxic, particularly at day 7 post LEW exposure (>10-fold increased levels of histamine, quinolinate, N-acetyl-β-alanine, GMP, and UPM). LEW exposure dysregulated integral functions of the cornea, caused inflammation and heightened immune response, and generated oxidative stress. Lipid and nucleotide metabolism, and energetics were also affected. The novel information about altered metabolic profile of rabbit cornea following LEW exposure could assist in delineating complex molecular events; thus, aid in identifying therapeutic targets to effectively ameliorate ocular trauma., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2023
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13. Ocular injury progression and cornea histopathology from chloropicrin vapor exposure: Relevant clinical biomarkers in mice.
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Ebenezar OO, Roney A, Goswami DG, Petrash JM, Sledge D, Komáromy AM, Liby KT, and Tewari-Singh N
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- Male, Animals, Mice, Endothelial Cells, Hyphema pathology, Cornea pathology, Edema pathology, Corneal Edema chemically induced, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Corneal Injuries chemically induced, Corneal Injuries pathology
- Abstract
Ocular tissue is highly sensitive to chemical exposures. Chloropicrin (CP), a choking agent employed during World War I and currently a popular pesticide and fumigating agent, is a potential chemical threat agent. Accidental, occupational, or intentional exposure to CP results in severe ocular injury, especially to the cornea; however, studies on ocular injury progression and underlying mechanisms in a relevant in vivo animal model are lacking. This has impaired the development of effective therapies to treat the acute and long-term ocular toxicity of CP. To study the in vivo clinical and biological effects of CP ocular exposure, we tested different CP exposure doses and durations in mice. These exposures will aid in the study of acute ocular injury and its progression as well as identify a moderate dose to develop a relevant rodent ocular injury model with CP. The left eyes of male BALB/c mice were exposed to CP (20% CP for 0.5 or 1 min or 10% CP for 1 min) using a vapor cap, with the right eyes serving as controls. Injury progression was evaluated for 25 days post-exposure. CP-exposure caused a significant corneal ulceration and eyelid swelling which resolved by day 14 post exposure. In addition, CP-exposure caused significant corneal opacity and neovascularization. Development of hydrops (severe corneal edema with corneal bullae) and hyphema (blood accumulation in the anterior chamber) was observed as advanced CP effects. Mice were euthanized at day 25 post-CP-exposure, and the eyes were harvested to further study the corneal injury. Histopathological analyses showed a significant CP-induced decrease in corneal epithelial thickness and increased stromal thickness with more pronounced damage, including stromal fibrosis, edema, neovascularization, trapped epithelial cells, anterior and posterior synechiae, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Loss of the corneal endothelial cells and Descemet's membrane could be associated with the CP-induced corneal edema and hydrops which could lead to long term term pathological conditions. Although exposure to 20% CP for 1 min caused more eyelid swelling, ulceration, and hyphema, similar effects were observed with all CP exposures. These novel findings following CP ocular exposure in a mouse model outline the corneal histopathologic changes that associate with the continuing ocular clinical effects. The data are useful in designing further studies to identify and correlate the clinical and biological markers of CP ocular injury progression with acute and long-term toxic effects on cornea and other ocular tissues. We take a crucial step towards CP ocular injury model development and in pathophysiological studies to identify molecular targets for therapeutic interventions., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)
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- 2023
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14. Effect of dexamethasone treatment at variable therapeutic windows in reversing nitrogen mustard-induced corneal injuries in rabbit ocular in vivo model.
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Goswami DG, Mishra N, Kant R, Agarwal C, Ammar DA, Petrash JM, Tewari-Singh N, and Agarwal R
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- Animals, Biomarkers, Irritants toxicity, Male, Rabbits, Anti-Inflammatory Agents therapeutic use, Corneal Injuries chemically induced, Corneal Injuries drug therapy, Dexamethasone therapeutic use, Mechlorethamine toxicity
- Abstract
Nitrogen mustard (NM) is an analogue of the potent vesicating agent sulfur mustard, with well-established ocular injury models in rabbit eyes to study vesicant-induced ocular toxicity. The effects of NM-exposure to eyes may include irritation, redness, inflammation, fibrosis, epithelial degradation, blurred vision, partial/complete blindness, which may be temporary or permanent, depending on the route, duration, and dosage of exposure. Effective countermeasures against vesicant exposure are presently not available and are warranted in case of any terrorist activity or accidental leakage from stockpiles. Herein, our focus was to evaluate whether dexamethasone (DEX), an FDA approved potent corticosteroid with documented anti-inflammatory activities, could be an effective treatment modality. Accordingly, utilizing NM-induced corneal injuries in rabbit ocular in vivo model, we examined and compared the efficacy of DEX treatments when administration was started at early (2 h), intermediate (4 h), and late (6 h) therapeutic windows of intervention after NM-exposure and administered every 8 h thereafter. The effects of NM-exposure and DEX treatments were evaluated on clinical (corneal opacity, ulceration, and neovascularization), biological (epithelial thickness, epithelial-stromal separation, blood vessels density, and inflammatory cell and keratocyte counts) and molecular (COX-2 and VEGF expression) parameters, at day 1, 3, 7 and 14. Results indicated that DEX treatment markedly and effectively reversed the NM-induced injury markers in rabbit corneas. Early administration of DEX at 2 h was found to be most effective in reversing NM-induced corneal injuries, followed by DEX 4 h and DEX 6 h administration initiation, indicating that DEX has best efficacy at the early therapeutic window in our study model., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
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- 2022
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15. A review of chemical warfare agents linked to respiratory and neurological effects experienced in Gulf War Illness.
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Cruz-Hernandez A, Roney A, Goswami DG, Tewari-Singh N, and Brown JM
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- Humans, Gulf War, Sarin, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Persian Gulf Syndrome chemically induced, Veterans
- Abstract
Over 40% of veterans from the Persian Gulf War (GW) (1990-1991) suffer from Gulf War Illness (GWI). Thirty years since the GW, the exposure and mechanism contributing to GWI remain unclear. One possible exposure that has been attributed to GWI are chemical warfare agents (CWAs). While there are treatments for isolated symptoms of GWI, the number of respiratory and cognitive/neurological issues continues to rise with minimum treatment options. This issue does not only affect veterans of the GW, importantly these chronic multisymptom illnesses (CMIs) are also growing amongst veterans who have served in the Afghanistan-Iraq war. What both wars have in common are their regions and inhaled exposures. In this review, we will describe the CWA exposures, such as sarin, cyclosarin, and mustard gas in both wars and discuss the various respiratory and neurocognitive issues experienced by veterans. We will bridge the respiratory and neurological symptoms experienced to the various potential mechanisms described for each CWA provided with the most up-to-date models and hypotheses.
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- 2022
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16. Mast Cells Promote Nitrogen Mustard-Mediated Toxicity in the Lung Associated With Proinflammatory Cytokine and Bioactive Lipid Mediator Production.
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Cruz-Hernandez A, Mendoza RP, Nguyen K, Harder A, Evans CM, Bauer AK, Tewari-Singh N, and Brown JM
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- Animals, Cytokines, Lipids, Lung, Mast Cells, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Mice, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Mustard Gas toxicity
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) has been widely used as a chemical warfare agent including most recently in Syria. Mice exposed to SM exhibit an increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines followed by immune cell infiltration in the lung, however, the mechanisms leading to these inflammatory responses has not been completely elucidated. Mast cells are one of the first responding innate immune cells found at the mucosal surfaces of the lung and have been reported to be activated by SM in the skin. Therefore, we hypothesized that nitrogen mustard (NM: a surrogate for SM) exposure promotes activation of mast cells causing chronic respiratory inflammation. To assess the role of mast cells in NM-mediated pulmonary toxicity, we compared the effects of NM exposure between C57BL/6 and B6.Cg-KitW-sh/HNihrJaeBsmJ (KitW-sh; mast cell deficient) mice. Lung injury was observed in C57BL/6J mice following NM exposure (0.125 mg/kg) at 72 h, which was significantly abrogated in KitW-sh mice. Although both strains exhibited damage from NM, C57BL/6J mice had higher inflammatory cell infiltration and more elevated prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) present in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid compared with KitW-sh mice. Additionally, we utilized murine bone marrow-derived mast cells to assess NM-induced early and late activation. Although NM exposure did not result in mast cell degranulation, we observed an upregulation in PGD2 and IL-6 levels following exposure to NM. Results suggest that mast cells play a prominent role in lung injury induced by NM and may contribute to the acute and potentially long-term lung injury observed caused by SM., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society of Toxicology. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)
- Published
- 2021
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17. Pathophysiology and inflammatory biomarkers of sulfur mustard-induced corneal injury in rabbits.
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Goswami DG, Mishra N, Kant R, Agarwal C, Croutch CR, Enzenauer RW, Petrash MJ, Tewari-Singh N, and Agarwal R
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- Animals, Blood Vessels cytology, Blood Vessels drug effects, Blood Vessels metabolism, Cell Survival drug effects, Cornea drug effects, Cornea metabolism, Corneal Injuries metabolism, Corneal Keratocytes cytology, Corneal Keratocytes drug effects, Corneal Keratocytes metabolism, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, Interleukin-8 metabolism, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 metabolism, Rabbits, Biomarkers metabolism, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Cornea pathology, Corneal Injuries etiology, Mustard Gas toxicity
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a cytotoxic, vesicating, chemical warfare agent, first used in 1917; corneas are particularly vulnerable to SM exposure. They may develop inflammation, ulceration, neovascularization (NV), impaired vision, and partial/complete blindness depending upon the concentration of SM, exposure duration, and bio-physiological conditions of the eyes. Comprehensive in vivo studies have established ocular structural alterations, opacity, NV, and inflammation upon short durations (<4 min) of SM exposure. In this study, detailed analyses of histopathological alterations in corneal structure, keratocytes, inflammatory cells, blood vessels, and expressions of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and cytokines were performed in New Zealand white rabbits, in a time-dependent manner till 28 days, post longer durations (5 and 7 min) of ocular SM exposure to establish quantifiable endpoints of injury and healing. Results indicated that SM exposure led to duration-dependent increases in corneal thickness, opacity, ulceration, epithelial-stromal separation, and epithelial degradation. Significant increases in NV, keratocyte death, blood vessels, and inflammatory markers (COX-2, MMP-9, VEGF, and interleukin-8) were also observed for both exposure durations compared to the controls. Collectively, these findings would benefit in temporal delineation of mechanisms underlying SM-induced corneal toxicity and provide models for testing therapeutic interventions., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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- 2021
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18. Effect of supersaturated oxygen emulsion treatment on chloropicrin-induced chemical injury in ex vivo rabbit cornea.
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Singh SK, Goswami DG, Wright HN, Kant R, Ali IA, Braucher LN, Klein JA, Godziela MG, Ammar DA, Pate KM, and Tewari-Singh N
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- Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Burns, Chemical etiology, Burns, Chemical metabolism, Burns, Chemical pathology, Cornea metabolism, Cornea pathology, Cytokines metabolism, DNA Damage, Emulsions, Eye Burns chemically induced, Eye Burns metabolism, Eye Burns pathology, Inflammation Mediators metabolism, Male, Organ Culture Techniques, Rabbits, Wound Healing drug effects, Burns, Chemical drug therapy, Cornea drug effects, Eye Burns drug therapy, Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated toxicity, Oxygen pharmacology
- Abstract
With a possibility for the use of chemical weapons in battlefield or in terrorist activities, effective therapies against the devastating ocular injuries, from their exposure, are needed. Oxygen plays a vital role in ocular tissue preservation and wound repair. We tested the efficacy of supersaturated oxygen emulsion (SSOE) in reducing ex vivo corneal and keratocyte injury from chloropicrin (CP). CP, currently used as a pesticide, is a chemical threat agent like the vesicating mustard agents and causes severe corneal injury. Since our previous study in human corneal epithelial cells showed the treatment potential of SSOE (55 %), we further tested its efficacy in an ex vivo CP-induced rabbit corneal injury model. Corneas were exposed to CP (700 nmol) for 2 h, washed and cultured with or without SSOE for 24 h or 96 h. At 96 h post CP exposure, SSOE treatment presented a healing tendency of the corneal epithelial layer, and abrogated the CP-induced epithelial apoptotic cell death. SSOE treatment also reduced the CP induced DNA damage (H2A.X phosphorylation) and inflammatory markers (e.g. MMP9, IL-21, MIP-1β, TNFα). Further examination of the treatment efficacy of SSOE alone or in combination with other therapies in in vivo cornea injury models for CP and vesicants, is warranted., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2021
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19. Special issue: emerging chemical terrorism threats.
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Casillas RP, Tewari-Singh N, and Gray JP
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- Chemical Terrorism, Terrorism
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- 2021
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20. Phosgene oxime: a highly toxic urticant and emerging chemical threat.
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Singh SK, Klein JA, Wright HN, and Tewari-Singh N
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- Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Irritants, Skin drug effects, Oximes toxicity, Phosgene toxicity
- Abstract
Highly toxic industrial chemicals that are widely accessible, and hazardous chemicals like phosgene oxime (CX) that can be easily synthesized, pose a serious threat as potential chemical weapons. In addition, their accidental release can lead to chemical emergencies and mass casualties. CX, an urticant, or nettle agent, grouped with vesicating agents, causes instant pain, injury and systemic effects, which can lead to mortality. With faster cutaneous penetration, corrosive properties, and more potent toxicity compared to other vesicating agents, CX causes instantaneous and severe tissue damage. CX, a potential chemical terrorism threat agent, could therefore be weaponized with other chemical warfare agents to enhance their harmful effects. CX is the least studied vesicant and its acute and long-term toxic effects as well as its mechanism of action are largely unknown. This has hampered the identification of therapeutic targets and the development of effective medical countermeasures. There are only protective measures, decontamination, and supportive treatments available for reducing the toxic effects from CX exposure. This review summarizes CX toxicity, its known mechanism of action, and our current studies exploring the role of mast cell activation and associated signaling pathways in CX cutaneous exposure under the National Institutes of Health Countermeasures Against Chemical Threats program. Potential treatment options and the development of effective targeted countermeasures against CX-induced morbidity and mortality is also discussed.
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- 2021
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21. Toxic consequences and oxidative protein carbonylation from chloropicrin exposure in human corneal epithelial cells.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Kant R, Ammar DA, Agarwal C, Gomez J, Agarwal R, Saba LM, Fritz KS, and Tewari-Singh N
- Subjects
- Caspase 3 metabolism, Cells, Cultured, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, DNA Damage, Epithelial Cells metabolism, Epithelial Cells pathology, Epithelium, Corneal metabolism, Epithelium, Corneal pathology, Heme Oxygenase-1 metabolism, Histones metabolism, Humans, Inflammation Mediators metabolism, JNK Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases metabolism, Lipid Peroxidation, Phosphorylation, Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases metabolism, Signal Transduction, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 metabolism, Apoptosis drug effects, Epithelial Cells drug effects, Epithelium, Corneal drug effects, Hydrocarbons, Chlorinated toxicity, Oxidative Stress drug effects, Pesticides toxicity, Protein Carbonylation drug effects
- Abstract
Chloropicrin (CP), a warfare agent now majorly used as a soil pesticide, is a strong irritating and lacrimating compound with devastating toxic effects. To elucidate the mechanism of its ocular toxicity, toxic effects of CP (0-100 μM) were studied in primary human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells. CP exposure resulted in reduced HCE cell viability and increased apoptotic cell death with an up-regulation of cleaved caspase-3 and poly ADP ribose polymerase indicating their contribution in CP-induced apoptotic cell death. Following CP exposure, cells exhibited increased expression of heme oxygenase-1, and phosphorylation of H2A.X and p53 as well as 4-hydroxynonenal adduct formation, suggesting oxidative stress, DNA damage and lipid peroxidation. CP also caused increases in mitogen activated protein kinase-c-Jun N-terminal kinase and inflammatory mediator cyclooxygenase-2. Proteomic analysis revealed an increase in the carbonylation of 179 proteins and enrichment of pathways (including proteasome pathway and catabolic process) in HCE cells following CP exposure. CP-induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation can enhance protein carbonylation, prompting alterations in corneal epithelial proteins as well as perturbing signaling pathways resulting in toxic effects. Pathways and major processes identified following CP exposure could be lead-hit targets for further biochemical and molecular characterization as well as therapeutic intervention., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)
- Published
- 2020
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22. A Supersaturated Oxygen Emulsion for the Topical Treatment of Ocular Trauma.
- Author
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Pate KM, Goswami DG, Lake M, Lake S, Kant R, Ammar D, and Tewari-Singh N
- Subjects
- Administration, Topical, Cornea, Emulsions, Humans, Oxygen, Corneal Injuries therapy, Epithelium, Corneal
- Abstract
Introduction: Roughly 13% of all battlefield injuries include some form of ocular trauma. Ocular tissue preservation is critical for wound healing for warfighters with ocular injuries. Our team hypothesized that oxygen plays a vital role in ocular tissue preservation and wound healing and has developed a supersaturated oxygen emulsion (SOE) for the topical treatment of ocular trauma., Materials and Methods: The partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) was measured in the SOE. Safety and efficacy studies were carried out in primary human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells, as the outermost layer is the first barrier to chemical and mechanical injury. Western blot, scratch assay, and MTT assays were conducted to determine the effect of the SOE on various molecular markers, the rate of scratch closure, and cellular viability, respectively., Results: Data indicate that the SOE releases oxygen in a time-dependent manner, reaching a partial pressure within the emulsion over four times atmospheric levels. Studies in HCE cells indicate that application of the SOE does not lead to DNA damage, promote cell death, or hinder the rate of scratch closure and enhances cellular viability. Preliminary studies were carried out with chloropicrin (CP; developed as a chemical warfare agent and now a commonly used pesticide) as a chemical agent to induce ocular injury in HCE cells. CP exposures showed that SOE treatment reverses CP-induced DNA damage, apoptotic cell death, and oxidative stress markers., Conclusions: Maintaining adequate tissue oxygenation is critical for tissue preservation and wound repair, especially in avascular tissues like the cornea. Further studies examining the application of the SOE in corneal injury models are warranted., (© Association of Military Surgeons of the United States 2019. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)
- Published
- 2020
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23. Acute corneal injury in rabbits following nitrogen mustard ocular exposure.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Kant R, Ammar DA, Kumar D, Enzenauer RW, Petrash JM, Tewari-Singh N, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Acute Disease, Animals, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Cornea metabolism, Cornea pathology, Corneal Injuries chemically induced, Cyclooxygenase 2 biosynthesis, Humans, Immunohistochemistry, Interleukin-8 biosynthesis, Male, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 biosynthesis, Rabbits, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A biosynthesis, Cornea drug effects, Corneal Injuries metabolism, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Mustard Gas toxicity
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM), a potent vesicating chemical warfare agent, and its analog nitrogen mustard (NM), are both strong bi-functional alkylating agents. Eyes, skin, and the respiratory system are the main targets of SM and NM exposure; however, ocular tissue is most sensitive, resulting in severe ocular injury. The mechanism of ocular injury from vesicating agents' exposure is not completely understood. To understand the injury mechanism from exposure to vesicating agents, NM has been previously employed in our toxicity studies on primary human corneal epithelial cells and ex vivo rabbit cornea organ culture model. In the current study, corneal toxicity from NM ocular exposure (1%) was analyzed for up to 28 days post-exposure in New Zealand White male rabbits to develop an acute corneal injury model. NM exposure led to conjunctival and eyelid swelling within a few hours after exposure, in addition to significant corneal opacity and ulceration. An increase in total corneal thickness and epithelial degradation was observed starting at day 3 post-NM exposure, which was maximal at day 14 post-exposure and did not resolve until 28 days post-exposure. There was an NM-induced increase in the number of blood vessels and inflammatory cells, and a decrease in keratocytes in the corneal stroma. NM exposure resulted in increased expression levels of cyclooxygenase-2, Interleukin-8, vascular endothelial growth factor and Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 indicating their involvement in NM-induced corneal injury. These clinical, biological, and molecular markers could be useful for the evaluation of acute corneal injury and to screen for therapies against NM- and SM-induced ocular injury., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2019
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24. Phosgene oxime: Injury and associated mechanisms compared to vesicating agents sulfur mustard and lewisite.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Agarwal R, and Tewari-Singh N
- Subjects
- Animals, Antidotes therapeutic use, Blister, Humans, Poisoning drug therapy, Skin Diseases chemically induced, Skin Diseases pathology, Arsenic Poisoning drug therapy, Arsenicals, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Irritants toxicity, Mustard Gas toxicity, Phosgene toxicity
- Abstract
Phosgene Oxime (CX, Cl
2 CNOH), a halogenated oxime, is a potent chemical weapon that causes immediate acute injury and systemic effects. CX, grouped together with vesicating agents, is an urticant or nettle agent with highly volatile, reactive, corrosive, and irritating vapor, and has considerably different chemical properties and toxicity compared to other vesicants. CX is absorbed quickly through clothing with faster cutaneous penetration compared to other vesicating agents causing instantaneous and severe damage. For this reason, it could be produced as a weaponized mixture with other chemical warfare agents to enhance their deleterious effects. The immediate devastating effects of CX and easy synthesis makes it a dangerous chemical with both military and terrorist potentials. Although CX is the most potent vesicating agent, it is one of the least studied chemical warfare agents and the pathophysiology as well as long term effects are largely unknown. CX exposure results in immediate pain and inflammation, and it mainly affects skin, eye and respiratory system. There are no antidotes available against CX-induced injury and the treatment is only supportive. This review summarizes existing knowledge regarding exposure, toxicity and the probable underlying mechanisms of CX compared to other important vesicants' exposure., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)- Published
- 2018
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25. Efficacy of anti-inflammatory, antibiotic and pleiotropic agents in reversing nitrogen mustard-induced injury in ex vivo cultured rabbit cornea.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Kant R, Tewari-Singh N, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Cyclooxygenase 2 biosynthesis, Dexamethasone therapeutic use, Doxycycline pharmacology, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 biosynthesis, Organ Culture Techniques, Rabbits, Silybin, Silymarin pharmacology, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A biosynthesis, Anti-Bacterial Agents pharmacology, Anti-Inflammatory Agents pharmacology, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Cornea drug effects, Mechlorethamine antagonists & inhibitors, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Protective Agents pharmacology
- Abstract
Vesicating agent, Sulfur mustard (SM), causes devastating eye injury; however, there are no effective antidotes available. Using nitrogen mustard (NM), a bi-functional analog of SM, we have earlier reported that NM-induced corneal injury in ex vivo rabbit cornea organ culture model parallels corneal injury reported with SM. Using this model, we have demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of dexamethasone (DEX), doxycycline (DOX) and silibinin (SB) in reversing NM (2h exposure)-induced corneal injuries when added immediately after washing NM. In the present study, we further examined the efficacy of similar/higher doses of these agents when added immediately, 2, or 4h after washing NM following its 2h exposure. All three treatment agents caused a reversal in established NM-induced injury biomarkers when added immediately or 2h after washing NM following its 2h exposure; however, when treatments were carried out 4h after washing NM, there was no significant effect. Together, our results further show the beneficial effect of these agents in reversing NM-induced corneal injury and indicate the time window for effective treatment. This could be useful towards future development of targeted therapeutics against vesicant-induced ocular injury., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2018
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26. Histopathological and Molecular Changes in the Rabbit Cornea From Arsenical Vesicant Lewisite Exposure.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Goswami DG, Kant R, Ammar DA, Kumar D, Enzenauer RW, Casillas RP, Croutch CR, Petrash JM, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Blister chemically induced, Blister metabolism, Blister pathology, Blood Vessels drug effects, Blood Vessels metabolism, Blood Vessels pathology, Cornea blood supply, Cornea metabolism, Cornea pathology, Corneal Keratocytes drug effects, Corneal Keratocytes metabolism, Corneal Keratocytes pathology, Corneal Neovascularization chemically induced, Corneal Neovascularization metabolism, Corneal Neovascularization pathology, Corneal Pachymetry, Corneal Stroma drug effects, Corneal Stroma metabolism, Corneal Stroma pathology, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, Epithelium, Corneal drug effects, Epithelium, Corneal metabolism, Epithelium, Corneal pathology, Interleukin-8 metabolism, Keratitis chemically induced, Keratitis metabolism, Keratitis pathology, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 metabolism, Rabbits, Risk Assessment, Time Factors, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A metabolism, Arsenicals adverse effects, Chemical Warfare Agents adverse effects, Cornea drug effects
- Abstract
Lewisite (LEW), a potent arsenical vesicating chemical warfare agent, poses a continuous risk of accidental exposure in addition to its feared use as a terrorist weapon. Ocular tissue is exquisitely sensitive to LEW and exposure can cause devastating corneal lesions. However, detailed pathogenesis of corneal injury and related mechanisms from LEW exposure that could help identify targeted therapies are not available. Using an established consistent and efficient exposure system, we evaluated the pathophysiology of the corneal injury in New Zealand white rabbits following LEW vapor exposure (at 0.2 mg/L dose) for 2.5 and 7.5 min, for up to 28 day post-exposure. LEW led to an increase in total corneal thickness starting at day 1 post-exposure and epithelial degradation starting at day 3 post-exposure, with maximal effect at day 7 postexposure followed by recovery at later time points. LEW also led to an increase in the number of blood vessels and inflammatory cells but a decrease in keratocytes with optimal effects at day 7 postexposure. A significant increase in epithelial-stromal separation was observed at days 7 and 14 post 7.5 min LEW exposure. LEW also caused an increase in the expression levels of cyclooxygenase-2, IL-8, vascular endothelial growth factor, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 at all the study time points indicating their involvement in LEW-induced inflammation, vesication, and neovascularization. The outcomes here provide valuable LEW-induced corneal injury endpoints at both lower and higher exposure durations in a relevant model system, which will be helpful to identify and screen therapies against LEW-induced corneal injury., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society of Toxicology. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)
- Published
- 2017
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27. Cutaneous exposure to vesicant phosgene oxime: Acute effects on the skin and systemic toxicity.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Goswami DG, Kant R, Croutch CR, Casillas RP, Orlicky DJ, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Administration, Cutaneous, Animals, Edema chemically induced, Edema pathology, Erythema chemically induced, Erythema pathology, Male, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Skin drug effects, Skin pathology, Irritants toxicity, Oximes toxicity, Phosgene toxicity, Skin Diseases chemically induced, Skin Diseases pathology
- Abstract
Phosgene Oxime (CX), an urticant or nettle agent categorized as a vesicant, is a potential chemical warfare and terrorist weapon. Its exposure can result in widespread and devastating effects including high mortality due to its fast penetration and ability to cause immediate severe cutaneous injury. It is one of the least studied chemical warfare agents with no effective therapy available. Thus, our goal was to examine the acute effects of CX following its cutaneous exposure in SKH-1 hairless mice to help establish a relevant injury model. Results from our study show that topical cutaneous exposure to CX vapor causes blanching of exposed skin with an erythematous ring, necrosis, edema, mild urticaria and erythema within minutes after exposure out to 8h post-exposure. These clinical skin manifestations were accompanied with increases in skin thickness, apoptotic cell death, mast cell degranulation, myeloperoxidase activity indicating neutrophil infiltration, p53 phosphorylation and accumulation, and an increase in COX-2 and TNFα levels. Topical CX-exposure also resulted in the dilatation of the peripheral vessels with a robust increase in RBCs in vessels of the liver, spleen, kidney, lungs and heart tissues. These events could cause a drop in blood pressure leading to shock, hypoxia and death. Together, this is the first report on effects of CX cutaneous exposure, which could help design further comprehensive studies evaluating the acute and chronic skin injuries from CX topical exposure and elucidate the related mechanism of action to aid in the identification of therapeutic targets and mitigation of injury., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2017
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28. Clinical progression of ocular injury following arsenical vesicant lewisite exposure.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Croutch CR, Tuttle R, Goswami DG, Kant R, Peters E, Culley T, Ammar DA, Enzenauer RW, Petrash JM, Casillas RP, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Corneal Neovascularization pathology, Corneal Opacity chemically induced, Corneal Opacity pathology, Eye drug effects, Eye pathology, Eye Injuries pathology, Rabbits, Arsenicals adverse effects, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Corneal Neovascularization chemically induced, Eye Injuries chemically induced
- Abstract
Ocular injury by lewisite (LEW), a potential chemical warfare and terrorist agent, results in edema of eyelids, inflammation, massive corneal necrosis and blindness. To enable screening of effective therapeutics to treat ocular injury from LEW, useful clinically-relevant endpoints are essential. Hence, we designed an efficient exposure system capable of exposing up to six New-Zealand white rabbits at one time, and assessed LEW vapor-induced progression of clinical ocular lesions mainly in the cornea. The right eye of each rabbit was exposed to LEW (0.2 mg/L) vapor for 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 min and clinical progression of injury was observed for 28 days post-exposure (dose-response study), or exposed to same LEW dose for 2.5 and 7.5 min and clinical progression of injury was observed for up to 56 days post-exposure (time-response study); left eye served as an unexposed control. Increasing LEW exposure caused corneal opacity within 6 h post-exposure, which increased up to 3 days, slightly reduced thereafter till 3 weeks, and again increased thereafter. LEW-induced corneal ulceration peaked at 1 day post-exposure and its increase thereafter was observed in phases. LEW exposure induced neovascularization starting at 7 days which peaked at 22-35 days post-exposure, and remained persistent thereafter. In addition, LEW exposure caused corneal thickness, iris redness, and redness and swelling of the conjunctiva. Together, these findings provide clinical sequelae of ocular injury following LEW exposure and for the first time establish clinically-relevant quantitative endpoints, to enable the further identification of histopathological and molecular events involved in LEW-induced ocular injury.
- Published
- 2016
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29. Mustard vesicating agent-induced toxicity in the skin tissue and silibinin as a potential countermeasure.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Humans, Irritants chemistry, Models, Biological, Mustard Gas chemistry, Silybin, Silymarin chemistry, Skin drug effects, Irritants toxicity, Mustard Gas toxicity, Silymarin pharmacology, Skin pathology
- Abstract
Exposure to the vesicating agents sulfur mustard (SM) and nitrogen mustard (NM) causes severe skin injury with delayed blistering. Depending upon the dose and time of their exposure, edema and erythema develop into blisters, ulceration, necrosis, desquamation, and pigmentation changes, which persist weeks and even years after exposure. Research advances have generated data that have started to explain the probable mechanism of action of vesicant-induced skin toxicity; however, despite these advances, effective and targeted therapies are still deficient. This review highlights studies on two SM analogs, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES) and NM, and CEES- and NM-induced skin injury mouse models that have substantially added to the knowledge on the complex pathways involved in mustard vesicating agent-induced skin injury. Furthermore, employing these mouse models, studies under the National Institutes of Health Countermeasures Against Chemical Threats program have identified the flavanone silibinin as a novel therapeutic intervention with the potential to be developed as an effective countermeasure against skin injury following exposure to mustard vesicating agents., (© 2016 New York Academy of Sciences.)
- Published
- 2016
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30. Corneal toxicity induced by vesicating agents and effective treatment options.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Tewari-Singh N, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Disease Models, Animal, Humans, Irritants chemistry, Protective Agents chemistry, Cornea pathology, Irritants toxicity, Protective Agents pharmacology
- Abstract
The vesicating agents sulfur mustard (SM) and lewisite (LEW) are potent chemical warfare agents that primarily cause damage to the ocular, skin, and respiratory systems. However, ocular tissue is the most sensitive organ, and vesicant exposure results in a biphasic injury response, including photophobia, corneal lesions, corneal edema, ulceration, and neovascularization, and may cause loss of vision. There are several reports on ocular injury from exposure to SM, which has been frequently used in warfare. However, there are very few reports on ocular injury by LEW, which indicate that injury symptoms appear instantly after exposure and faster than SM. In spite of extensive research efforts, effective therapies for vesicant-induced ocular injuries, mainly to the most affected corneal tissue, are not available. Hence, we have established primary human corneal epithelial cells and rabbit corneal organ culture models with the SM analog nitrogen mustard, which have helped to test the efficacy of potential therapeutic agents. These agents will then be further evaluated against in vivo SM- and LEW-induced corneal injury models, which will assist in the development of potential broad-spectrum therapies against vesicant-induced ocular injuries., (© 2016 New York Academy of Sciences.)
- Published
- 2016
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31. Nitrogen Mustard-Induced Corneal Injury Involves DNA Damage and Pathways Related to Inflammation, Epithelial-Stromal Separation, and Neovascularization.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Tewari-Singh N, Dhar D, Kumar D, Agarwal C, Ammar DA, Kant R, Enzenauer RW, Petrash JM, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Biomarkers metabolism, Blotting, Western, Cell Proliferation drug effects, Cell Survival drug effects, Cornea metabolism, Cornea pathology, Corneal Neovascularization metabolism, Corneal Neovascularization pathology, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Immunohistochemistry, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 metabolism, Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II metabolism, Organ Culture Techniques, Rabbits, Rupture, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A metabolism, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Cornea drug effects, Corneal Neovascularization chemically induced, Corneal Stroma pathology, DNA Damage, Epithelium, Corneal pathology, Mechlorethamine toxicity
- Abstract
Purpose: To evaluate the toxic effects and associated mechanisms in corneal tissue exposed to the vesicating agent, nitrogen mustard (NM), a bifunctional alkylating analog of the chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard., Methods: Toxic effects and associated mechanisms were examined in maximally affected corneal tissue using corneal cultures and human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells exposed to NM., Results: Analysis of ex vivo rabbit corneas showed that NM exposure increased apoptotic cell death, epithelial thickness, epithelial-stromal separation, and levels of vascular endothelial growth factor, cyclooxygenase 2, and matrix metalloproteinase-9. In HCE cells, NM exposure resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in cell viability and proliferation, which was associated with DNA damage in terms of an increase in p53 ser15, total p53, and H2A.X ser139 levels. NM exposure also induced caspase-3 and poly ADP ribose polymerase cleavage, suggesting their involvement in NM-induced apoptotic death in the rabbit cornea and HCE cells. Similar to rabbit cornea, NM exposure caused an increase in cyclooxygenase 2, matrix metalloproteinase-9, and vascular endothelial growth factor levels in HCE cells, indicating a role of these molecules and related pathways in NM-induced corneal inflammation, epithelial-stromal separation, and neovascularization. NM exposure also induced activation of activator protein 1 transcription factor proteins and upstream signaling pathways including mitogen-activated protein kinases and Akt protein kinase, suggesting that these could be key factors involved in NM-induced corneal injury., Conclusions: Results from this study provide insight into the molecular targets and pathways that could be involved in NM-induced corneal injuries laying the background for further investigation of these pathways in vesicant-induced ocular injuries, which could be helpful in the development of targeted therapies.
- Published
- 2016
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32. Nitrogen mustard exposure of murine skin induces DNA damage, oxidative stress and activation of MAPK/Akt-AP1 pathway leading to induction of inflammatory and proteolytic mediators.
- Author
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Kumar D, Tewari-Singh N, Agarwal C, Jain AK, Inturi S, Kant R, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic, Histones genetics, Histones metabolism, Inflammation chemically induced, Inflammation metabolism, Lipid Peroxidation, Male, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Kinases metabolism, Oxidation-Reduction, Peptide Hydrolases genetics, Peptide Hydrolases metabolism, Peptides genetics, Phosphorylation, Protein Binding, Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases genetics, Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases metabolism, Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt genetics, Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Acetyl-Transferring Kinase, Rad51 Recombinase genetics, Rad51 Recombinase metabolism, Skin drug effects, Skin metabolism, Skin Absorption, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 genetics, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 metabolism, DNA Damage drug effects, MAP Kinase Signaling System physiology, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Oxidative Stress, Peptides metabolism, Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt metabolism
- Abstract
Our recent studies in SKH-1 hairless mice have demonstrated that topical exposure to nitrogen mustard (NM), an analog of sulfur mustard (SM), triggers the inflammatory response, microvesication and apoptotic cell death. Here, we sought to identify the mechanism/s involved in these NM-induced injury responses. Results obtained show that NM exposure of SKH-1 hairless mouse skin caused H2A.X and p53 phosphorylation and increased p53 accumulation, indicating DNA damage. In addition, NM also induced the activation of MAPKs/ERK1/2, JNK1/2 and p38 as well as that of Akt together with the activation of transcription factor AP1. Also, NM exposure induced robust expression of pro-inflammatory mediators namely cyclooxygenase 2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase and cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha, and increased the levels of proteolytic mediator matrix metalloproteinase 9. NM exposure of skin also increased lipid peroxidation, 5,5-dimethyl-2-(8-octanoic acid)-1-pyrroline N-oxide protein adduct formation, protein and DNA oxidation indicating an elevated oxidative stress. We also found NM-induced increase in the homologous recombinant repair pathway, suggesting its involvement in the repair of NM-induced DNA damage. Collectively, these results indicate that NM induces oxidative stress, mainly a bi-phasic response in DNA damage and activation of MAPK and Akt pathways, which activate transcription factor AP1 and induce the expression of inflammatory and proteolytic mediators, contributing to the skin injury response by NM. In conclusion, this study for the first time links NM-induced mechanistic changes with our earlier reported murine skin injury lesions with NM, which could be valuable to identify potential therapeutic targets and rescue agents., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2015
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33. Flavanone silibinin treatment attenuates nitrogen mustard-induced toxic effects in mouse skin.
- Author
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Jain AK, Tewari-Singh N, Inturi S, Kumar D, Orlicky DJ, Agarwal C, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- 8-Hydroxy-2'-Deoxyguanosine, Administration, Cutaneous, Animals, Antidotes administration & dosage, Apoptosis drug effects, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, Cytoprotection, DNA Damage, Deoxyguanosine analogs & derivatives, Deoxyguanosine metabolism, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Histones metabolism, Male, Mice, Hairless, Necrosis, Oxidative Stress drug effects, Peroxidase metabolism, Phosphorylation, Signal Transduction drug effects, Silybin, Silymarin administration & dosage, Skin metabolism, Skin pathology, Time Factors, Antidotes pharmacology, Irritants toxicity, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Silymarin pharmacology, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Currently, there is no effective antidote to prevent skin injuries by sulfur mustard (SM) and nitrogen mustard (NM), which are vesicating agents with potential relevance to chemical warfare, terrorist attacks, or industrial/laboratory accidents. Our earlier report has demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of silibinin, a natural flavanone, in reversing monofunctional alkylating SM analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced toxic effects in mouse skin. To translate this effect to a bifunctional alkylating vesicant, herein, efficacy studies were carried out with NM. Topical application of silibinin (1 or 2mg) 30 min after NM exposure on the dorsal skin of male SKH-1 hairless mice significantly decreased NM-induced toxic lesions at 24, 72 or 120 h post-exposure. Specifically, silibinin treatment resulted in dose-dependent reduction of NM-induced increase in epidermal thickness, dead and denuded epidermis, parakeratosis and microvesication. Higher silibinin dose also caused a 79% and 51%reversal in NM-induced increases in myeloperoxidase activity and COX-2 levels, respectively. Furthermore, silibinin completely prevented NM-induced H2A.X phosphorylation, indicating reversal of DNA damage which could be an oxidative DNA damage as evidenced by high levels of 8-oxodG in NM-exposed mouse skin that was significantly reversed by silibinin. Together, these findings suggest that attenuation of NM-induced skin injury by silibinin is due to its effects on the pathways associated with DNA damage, inflammation, vesication and oxidative stress. In conclusion, results presented here support the optimization of silibinin as an effective treatment of skin injury by vesicants., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2015
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34. Topical nitrogen mustard exposure causes systemic toxic effects in mice.
- Author
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Goswami DG, Kumar D, Tewari-Singh N, Orlicky DJ, Jain AK, Kant R, Rancourt RC, Dhar D, Inturi S, Agarwal C, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Administration, Cutaneous, Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Body Weight drug effects, Intestine, Small pathology, Kidney pathology, Leukocyte Count, Male, Mice, Hairless, Organ Size drug effects, Skin injuries, Spleen pathology, Survival Analysis, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Hematopoietic System drug effects, Intestine, Small drug effects, Kidney drug effects, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Skin drug effects, Spleen drug effects
- Abstract
Vesicating agents sulfur mustard (SM) and nitrogen mustard (NM) are reported to be easily absorbed by skin upon exposure causing severe cutaneous injury and blistering. Our studies show that topical exposure of NM (3.2mg) onto SKH-1 hairless mouse skin, not only caused skin injury, but also led to significant body weight loss and 40-80% mortality (120 h post-exposure), suggesting its systemic effects. Accordingly, further studies herein show that NM exposure initiated an increase in circulating white blood cells by 24h (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils) and thereafter a decrease (neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes). NM exposure also reduced both white and red pulp areas of the spleen. In the small intestine, NM exposure caused loss of membrane integrity of the surface epithelium, abnormal structure of glands and degeneration of villi. NM exposure also resulted in the dilation of glomerular capillaries of kidneys, and an increase in blood urea nitrogen/creatinine ratio. Our results here with NM are consistent with earlier reports that exposure to higher SM levels can cause damage to the hematopoietic system, and kidney, spleen and gastrointestinal tract toxicity. These outcomes will add to our understanding of the toxic effects of topical vesicant exposure, which might be helpful towards developing effective countermeasures against injuries from acute topical exposures., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2015
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35. Catalytic antioxidant AEOL 10150 treatment ameliorates sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-associated cutaneous toxic effects.
- Author
-
Tewari-Singh N, Inturi S, Jain AK, Agarwal C, Orlicky DJ, White CW, Agarwal R, and Day BJ
- Subjects
- Animals, Cell Line, Cell Proliferation drug effects, Cell Survival drug effects, Comet Assay, Humans, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas toxicity, Oxidative Stress drug effects, Skin pathology, Antidotes pharmacology, Antioxidants pharmacology, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Metalloporphyrins pharmacology, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Our previous studies and other published reports on the chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (SM) and its analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES) have indicated a role of oxidative stress in skin injuries caused by these vesicating agents. We examined the effects of the catalytic antioxidant AEOL 10150 in the attenuation of CEES-induced toxicity using our established skin injury models (skin epidermal cells and SKH-1 hairless mice) to validate the role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of mustard vesicating agents. Treatment of mouse epidermal JB6 and human HaCaT cells with AEOL 10150 (50μM) 1h post-CEES exposure resulted in significant (p < 0.05) reversal of CEES-induced decreases in both cell viability and DNA synthesis. Similarly, AEOL 10150 treatment 1h after CEES exposure attenuated CEES-induced DNA damage in these cells. Similar AEOL 10150 treatments also caused significant (p < 0.05) reversal of CEES-induced decreases in cell viability in normal human epidermal keratinocytes. Cytoplasmic and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species measurements showed that AEOL 10150 treatment drastically ameliorated the CEES-induced oxidative stress in both JB6 and HaCaT cells. Based on AEOL 10150 pharmacokinetic studies in SKH-1 mouse skin, mice were treated with a topical formulation plus subcutaneous injection (5mg/kg) of AEOL 10150 1h after CEES (4mg/mouse) exposure and every 4h thereafter for 12h. This AEOL 10150 treatment regimen resulted in over 50% (p < 0.05) reversal of CEES-induced skin bi-fold and epidermal thickness, myeloperoxidase activity, and DNA oxidation in mouse skin. Results from this study demonstrate the potential therapeutic efficacy of AEOL 10150 against CEES-mediated cutaneous lesions, supporting AEOL 10150 as a medical countermeasure against SM-induced skin injuries., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2014
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36. Myeloperoxidase deficiency attenuates nitrogen mustard-induced skin injuries.
- Author
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Jain AK, Tewari-Singh N, Inturi S, Orlicky DJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Blister chemically induced, Blister pathology, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, DNA Damage drug effects, Male, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 metabolism, Mechlorethamine administration & dosage, Mice, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Mice, Knockout, Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II metabolism, Peroxidase genetics, Skin pathology, Time Factors, Apoptosis drug effects, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Metabolism, Inborn Errors metabolism, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
The pathologic mechanisms of skin injuries, following the acute inflammatory response induced by vesicating agents sulfur mustard (SM) and nitrogen mustard (NM) exposure, are poorly understood. Neutrophils which accumulate at the site of injury, abundantly express myeloperoxidase (MPO), a heme protein that is implicated in oxidant-related antimicrobial and cytotoxic responses. Our previous studies have shown that exposure to SM analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES) or NM results in an inflammatory response including increased neutrophilic infiltration and MPO activity. To further define the role of neutrophil-derived MPO in NM-induced skin injury, here we used a genetic approach and examined the effect of NM exposure (12h and 24h) on previously established injury endpoints in C57BL/6J wild type (WT) and B6.129X1-MPOtm1Lus/J mice (MPO KO), homozygous null for MPO gene. NM exposure caused a significant increase in skin bi-fold thickness, epidermal thickness, microvesication, DNA damage and apoptosis in WT mice compared to MPO KO mice. MPO KO mice showed relatively insignificant effect. Similarly, NM induced increases in the expression of inflammatory and proteolytic mediators, including COX-2, iNOS and MMP-9 in WT mice, while having a significantly lower effect in MPO KO mice. Collectively, these results show that MPO, which generates microbicidal oxidants, plays an important role in NM-induced skin injuries. This suggests the development of mechanism-based treatments against NM- and SM-induced skin injuries that inhibit MPO activity and attenuate MPO-derived oxidants., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2014
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37. Activation of DNA damage repair pathways in response to nitrogen mustard-induced DNA damage and toxicity in skin keratinocytes.
- Author
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Inturi S, Tewari-Singh N, Agarwal C, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Boron Compounds pharmacology, Cell Line, Chromones pharmacology, DNA Repair genetics, DNA-Activated Protein Kinase antagonists & inhibitors, DNA-Activated Protein Kinase genetics, DNA-Activated Protein Kinase metabolism, DNA-Binding Proteins antagonists & inhibitors, DNA-Binding Proteins genetics, DNA-Binding Proteins metabolism, G2 Phase Cell Cycle Checkpoints drug effects, G2 Phase Cell Cycle Checkpoints genetics, Histones genetics, Histones metabolism, Keratinocytes pathology, Mice, Morpholines pharmacology, Nuclear Proteins antagonists & inhibitors, Nuclear Proteins genetics, Nuclear Proteins metabolism, Rad51 Recombinase antagonists & inhibitors, Rad51 Recombinase genetics, Rad51 Recombinase metabolism, Skin pathology, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 genetics, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 metabolism, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, DNA Damage, DNA Repair drug effects, Keratinocytes metabolism, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Skin metabolism
- Abstract
Nitrogen mustard (NM), a structural analog of chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (SM), forms adducts and crosslinks with DNA, RNA and proteins. Here we studied the mechanism of NM-induced skin toxicity in response to double strand breaks (DSBs) resulting in cell cycle arrest to facilitate DNA repair, as a model for developing countermeasures against vesicant-induced skin injuries. NM exposure of mouse epidermal JB6 cells decreased cell growth and caused S-phase arrest. Consistent with these biological outcomes, NM exposure also increased comet tail extent moment and the levels of DNA DSB repair molecules phospho H2A.X Ser139 and p53 Ser15 indicating NM-induced DNA DSBs. Since DNA DSB repair occurs via non homologous end joining pathway (NHEJ) or homologous recombination repair (HRR) pathways, next we studied these two pathways and noted their activation as defined by an increase in phospho- and total DNA-PK levels, and the formation of Rad51 foci, respectively. To further analyze the role of these pathways in the cellular response to NM-induced cytotoxicity, NHEJ and HRR were inhibited by DNA-PK inhibitor NU7026 and Rad51 inhibitor BO2, respectively. Inhibition of NHEJ did not sensitize cells to NM-induced decrease in cell growth and cell cycle arrest. However, inhibition of the HRR pathway caused a significant increase in cell death, and prolonged G2M arrest following NM exposure. Together, our findings, indicating that HRR is the key pathway involved in the repair of NM-induced DNA DSBs, could be useful in developing new therapeutic strategies against vesicant-induced skin injury., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2014
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38. Histopathological and immunohistochemical evaluation of nitrogen mustard-induced cutaneous effects in SKH-1 hairless and C57BL/6 mice.
- Author
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Jain AK, Tewari-Singh N, Inturi S, Orlicky DJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Blister chemically induced, Blister immunology, Blister metabolism, Blister pathology, Cell Proliferation drug effects, Dermatitis, Contact enzymology, Dermatitis, Contact etiology, Dermatitis, Contact immunology, Edema chemically induced, Edema enzymology, Edema immunology, Edema pathology, Immunohistochemistry, Male, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Peroxidase metabolism, Skin enzymology, Skin immunology, Skin pathology, Skinfold Thickness, Species Specificity, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Dermatitis, Contact pathology, Disease Models, Animal, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM) is a vesicant warfare agent which causes severe skin injuries. Currently, we lack effective antidotes against SM-induced skin injuries, in part due to lack of appropriate animal model(s) that can be used for efficacy studies in laboratory settings to identify effective therapies. Therefore, to develop a relevant mouse skin injury model, we examined the effects of nitrogen mustard (NM), a primary vesicant and a bifunctional alkylating agent that induces toxic effects comparable to SM. Specifically, we conducted histopathological and immunohistochemical evaluation of several applicable cutaneous pathological lesions following skin NM (3.2mg) exposure for 12-120h in SKH-1 and C57BL/6 mice. NM caused a significant increase in epidermal thickness, incidence of microvesication, cell proliferation, apoptotic cell death, inflammatory cells (neutrophils, macrophages and mast cells) and myleoperoxidase activity in the skin of both mouse strains. However, there was a more prominent NM-induced increase in epidermal thickness, and macrophages and mast cell infiltration, in SKH-1 mice relative to what was seen in C57BL/6 mice. NM also caused collagen degradation and edema at early time points (12-24h); however, at later time points (72 and 120h), dense collagen staining was observed, indicating either water loss or start of integument repair in both the mouse strains. This study provides quantitative measurement of NM-induced histopathological and immunohistochemical cutaneous lesions in both hairless and haired mouse strains that could serve as useful tools for screening and identification of effective therapies for treatment of skin injuries due to NM and SM., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2014
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39. Cutaneous injury-related structural changes and their progression following topical nitrogen mustard exposure in hairless and haired mice.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Jain AK, Orlicky DJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Blister chemically induced, Dermis drug effects, Disease Progression, Epidermis drug effects, Hyperkeratosis, Epidermolytic chemically induced, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Mustard Gas toxicity, Necrosis chemically induced, Blister pathology, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Dermis pathology, Epidermis pathology, Hyperkeratosis, Epidermolytic pathology, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Necrosis pathology
- Abstract
To identify effective therapies against sulfur mustard (SM)-induced skin injuries, various animals have been used to assess the cutaneous pathology and related histopathological changes of SM injuries. However, these efforts to establish relevant skin injury endpoints for efficacy studies have been limited mainly due to the restricted assess of SM. Therefore, we employed the SM analog nitrogen mustard (NM), a primary vesicating and bifunctional alkylating agent, to establish relevant endpoints for efficient efficacy studies. Our published studies show that NM (3.2 mg) exposure for 12-120 h in both the hairless SKH-1 and haired C57BL/6 mice caused clinical sequelae of toxicity similar to SM exposure in humans. The NM-induced cutaneous pathology-related structural changes were further analyzed in this study and quantified morphometrically (as percent length or area of epidermis or dermis) of skin sections in mice showing these lesions. H&E stained skin sections of both hairless and haired mice showed that NM (12-120 h) exposure caused epidermal histopathological effects such as increased epidermal thickness, epidermal-dermal separation, necrotic/dead epidermis, epidermal denuding, scab formation, parakeratosis (24-120 h), hyperkeratosis (12-120 h), and acanthosis with hyperplasia (72-120 h). Similar NM exposure in both mice caused dermal changes including necrosis, edema, increase in inflammatory cells, and red blood cell extravasation. These NM-induced cutaneous histopathological features are comparable to the reported lesions from SM exposure in humans and animal models. This study advocates the usefulness of these histopathological parameters observed due to NM exposure in screening and optimization of rescue therapies against NM and SM skin injuries.
- Published
- 2014
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40. Absence of a p53 allele delays nitrogen mustard-induced early apoptosis and inflammation of murine skin.
- Author
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Inturi S, Tewari-Singh N, Jain AK, Roy S, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Alleles, Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Dermatitis, Contact etiology, Dermatitis, Contact pathology, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Peroxidase metabolism, Skin metabolism, Skin pathology, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 genetics, Alkylating Agents toxicity, Dermatitis, Contact metabolism, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Skin drug effects, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 deficiency
- Abstract
Bifunctional alkylating agent sulfur mustard (SM) and its analog nitrogen mustard (NM) cause DNA damage leading to cell death, and potentially activating inflammation. Transcription factor p53 plays a critical role in DNA damage by regulating cell cycle progression and apoptosis. Earlier studies by our laboratory demonstrated phosphorylation of p53 at Ser15 and an increase in total p53 in epidermal cells both in vitro and in vivo following NM exposure. To elucidate the role of p53 in NM-induced skin toxicity, we employed SKH-1 hairless mice harboring wild type (WT) or heterozygous p53 (p53+/-). Exposure to NM (3.2mg) caused a more profound increase in epidermal thickness and apoptotic cell death in WT relative to p53+/- mice at 24h. However, by 72h after exposure, there was a comparable increase in NM-induced epidermal cell death in both WT and p53+/- mice. Myeloperoxidase activity data showed that neutrophil infiltration was strongly enhanced in NM-exposed WT mice at 24h persisting through 72h of exposure. Conversely, robust NM-induced neutrophil infiltration (comparable to WT mice) was seen only at 72h after exposure in p53+/- mice. Similarly, NM-exposure strongly induced macrophage and mast cell infiltration in WT, but not p53+/- mice. Together, these data indicate that early apoptosis and inflammation induced by NM in mouse skin are p53-dependent. Thus, targeting this pathway could be a novel strategy for developing countermeasures against vesicants-induced skin injury., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2013
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41. Clinically-relevant cutaneous lesions by nitrogen mustard: useful biomarkers of vesicants skin injury in SKH-1 hairless and C57BL/6 mice.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Jain AK, Inturi S, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Disease Progression, Edema chemically induced, Edema pathology, Erythema chemically induced, Erythema pathology, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mice, Inbred C57BL, Skin drug effects, Skin pathology, Skinfold Thickness, Time Factors, Biomarkers metabolism, Irritants toxicity, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Skin Diseases chemically induced, Skin Diseases pathology
- Abstract
A paucity of clinically applicable biomarkers to screen therapies in laboratory is a limitation in the development of countermeasures against cutaneous injuries by chemical weapon, sulfur mustard (SM), and its analog nitrogen mustard (NM). Consequently, we assessed NM-caused progression of clinical cutaneous lesions; notably, skin injury with NM is comparable to SM. Exposure of SKH-1 hairless and C57BL/6 (haired) mice to NM (3.2 mg) for 12-120 h caused clinical sequelae of toxicity, including microblister formation, edema, erythema, altered pigmentation, wounding, xerosis and scaly dry skin. These toxic effects of NM were similar in both mouse strains, except that wounding and altered pigmentation at 12-24 h and appearance of dry skin at 24 and 72 h post-NM exposure were more pronounced in C57BL/6 compared to SKH-1 mice. Conversely, edema, erythema and microblister formation were more prominent in SKH-1 than C57BL/6 mice at 24-72 h after NM exposure. In addition, 40-60% mortality was observed following 120 h of NM exposure in the both mouse strains. Overall, these toxic effects of NM are comparable to those reported in humans and other animal species with SM, and thus represent clinically-relevant cutaneous injury endpoints in screening and optimization of therapies for skin injuries by vesicating agents.
- Published
- 2013
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42. Silibinin, dexamethasone, and doxycycline as potential therapeutic agents for treating vesicant-inflicted ocular injuries.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Jain AK, Inturi S, Ammar DA, Agarwal C, Tyagi P, Kompella UB, Enzenauer RW, Petrash JM, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Anti-Bacterial Agents pharmacology, Anti-Inflammatory Agents pharmacology, Antioxidants pharmacology, Apoptosis drug effects, Corneal Diseases chemically induced, Corneal Diseases pathology, Cyclooxygenase 2 drug effects, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, Drug Therapy, Combination, Epithelium, Corneal drug effects, Epithelium, Corneal pathology, In Vitro Techniques, Irritants toxicity, Mechlorethamine toxicity, Mustard Gas toxicity, Rabbits, Silybin, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A drug effects, Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A metabolism, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Corneal Diseases drug therapy, Dexamethasone pharmacology, Doxycycline pharmacology, Silymarin pharmacology
- Abstract
There are no effective and approved therapies against devastating ocular injuries caused by vesicating chemical agents sulfur mustard (SM) and nitrogen mustard (NM). Herein, studies were carried out in rabbit corneal cultures to establish relevant ocular injury biomarkers with NM for screening potential efficacious agents in laboratory settings. NM (100nmol) exposure of the corneas for 2h (cultured for 24h), showed increases in epithelial thickness, ulceration, apoptotic cell death, epithelial detachment microbullae formation, and the levels of VEGF, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). Employing these biomarkers, efficacy studies were performed with agent treatments 2h and every 4h thereafter, for 24h following NM exposure. Three agents were evaluated, including prescription drugs dexamethasone (0.1%; anti-inflammatory steroid) and doxycycline (100nmol; antibiotic and MMP inhibitor) that have been studied earlier for treating vesicant-induced eye injuries. We also examined silibinin (100μg), a non-toxic natural flavanone found to be effective in treating SM analog-induced skin injuries in our earlier studies. Treatments of doxycycline+dexamethasone, and silibinin were more effective than doxycycline or dexamethasone alone in reversing NM-induced epithelial thickening, microbullae formation, apoptotic cell death, and MMP-9 elevation. However, dexamethasone and silibinin alone were more effective in reversing NM-induced VEGF levels. Doxycycline, dexamethasone and silibinin were all effective in reversing NM-induced COX-2 levels. Apart from therapeutic efficacy of doxycycline and dexamethasone, these results show strong multifunctional efficacy of silibinin in reversing NM-induced ocular injuries, which could help develop effective and safe therapeutics against ocular injuries by vesicants., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2012
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43. Silibinin attenuates sulfur mustard analog-induced skin injury by targeting multiple pathways connecting oxidative stress and inflammation.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Jain AK, Inturi S, Agarwal C, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- 8-Hydroxy-2'-Deoxyguanosine, Aldehydes chemistry, Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Cells, Cultured, Cyclooxygenase 2 genetics, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, DNA Damage, Deoxyguanosine analogs & derivatives, Deoxyguanosine antagonists & inhibitors, Deoxyguanosine metabolism, Female, Gene Expression Regulation drug effects, Humans, Inflammation metabolism, Inflammation pathology, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 genetics, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 metabolism, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas toxicity, Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II genetics, Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II metabolism, Oxidative Stress drug effects, Silybin, Skin cytology, Skin metabolism, Antidotes pharmacology, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Inflammation prevention & control, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Signal Transduction drug effects, Silymarin pharmacology, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (HD) inflicts delayed blistering and incapacitating skin injuries. To identify effective countermeasures against HD-induced skin injuries, efficacy studies were carried out employing HD analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES)-induced injury biomarkers in skin cells and SKH-1 hairless mouse skin. The data demonstrate strong therapeutic efficacy of silibinin, a natural flavanone, in attenuating CEES-induced skin injury and oxidative stress. In skin cells, silibinin (10 µM) treatment 30 min after 0.35/0.5 mM CEES exposure caused a significant (p<0.05) reversal in CEES-induced decrease in cell viability, apoptotic and necrotic cell death, DNA damage, and an increase in oxidative stress. Silibinin (1 mg) applied topically to mouse skin 30 min post-CEES exposure (2 mg), was effective in reversing CEES-induced increases in skin bi-fold (62%) and epidermal thickness (85%), apoptotic cell death (70%), myeloperoxidase activity (complete reversal), induction of iNOS, COX-2, and MMP-9 protein levels (>90%), and activation of transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1 (complete reversal). Similarly, silibinin treatment was also effective in attenuating CEES-induced oxidative stress measured by 4-hydroxynonenal and 5,5-dimethyl-2-(8-octanoic acid)-1-pyrolline N-oxide protein adduct formation, and 8-oxo-2-deoxyguanosine levels. Since our previous studies implicated oxidative stress, in part, in CEES-induced toxic responses, the reversal of CEES-induced oxidative stress and other toxic effects by silibinin in this study indicate its pleiotropic therapeutic efficacy. Together, these findings support further optimization of silibinin in HD skin toxicity model to develop a novel effective therapy for skin injuries by vesicants.
- Published
- 2012
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44. Mechanisms of sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced DNA damage in skin epidermal cells and fibroblasts.
- Author
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Inturi S, Tewari-Singh N, Gu M, Shrotriya S, Gomez J, Agarwal C, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Cell Line, Chromans pharmacology, DNA Damage, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Fibroblasts metabolism, Glutathione pharmacology, Histones metabolism, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas pharmacology, Oxidation-Reduction, Phosphorylation, Reactive Oxygen Species metabolism, Skin cytology, Skin metabolism, Structure-Activity Relationship, Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 metabolism, Fibroblasts drug effects, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Employing mouse skin epidermal JB6 cells and dermal fibroblasts, here we examined the mechanisms of DNA damage by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), a monofunctional analog of sulfur mustard (SM). CEES exposure caused H2A.X and p53 phosphorylation as well as p53 accumulation in both cell types, starting at 1h, that was sustained for 24h, indicating a DNA-damaging effect of CEES, which was also confirmed and quantified by alkaline comet assay. CEES exposure also induced oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage in both cell types, measured by an increase in mitochondrial and cellular reactive oxygen species and 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels, respectively. In the studies distinguishing between oxidative and direct DNA damage, 1h pretreatment with glutathione (GSH) or the antioxidant Trolox showed a decrease in CEES-induced oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage. However, only GSH pretreatment decreased CEES-induced total DNA damage measured by comet assay, H2A.X and p53 phosphorylation, and total p53 levels. This was possibly due to the formation of GSH-CEES conjugates detected by LC-MS analysis. Together, our results show that CEES causes both direct and oxidative DNA damage, suggesting that to rescue SM-caused skin injuries, pleiotropic agents (or cocktails) are needed that could target multiple pathways of mustard skin toxicities., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2011
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45. Sulfur mustard analog, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced skin injury involves DNA damage and induction of inflammatory mediators, in part via oxidative stress, in SKH-1 hairless mouse skin.
- Author
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Jain AK, Tewari-Singh N, Gu M, Inturi S, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Alkylating Agents administration & dosage, Alkylating Agents toxicity, Animals, Antidotes metabolism, Antidotes therapeutic use, Blister chemically induced, Cyclooxygenase 2 metabolism, Dermatitis, Contact immunology, Dermatitis, Contact pathology, Dermatitis, Contact prevention & control, Female, Glutathione metabolism, Glutathione therapeutic use, Histones metabolism, Male, Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 metabolism, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas administration & dosage, Mustard Gas toxicity, Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II metabolism, Phosphorylation drug effects, Protein Processing, Post-Translational drug effects, Skin immunology, Skin metabolism, Skin pathology, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, DNA Damage, Dermatitis, Contact metabolism, Inflammation Mediators metabolism, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Oxidative Stress drug effects, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Bifunctional alkyalating agent, sulfur mustard (SM)-induced cutaneous injury is characterized by inflammation and delayed blistering. Our recent studies demonstrated that 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), a monofunctional analog of SM that can be used in laboratory settings, induces oxidative stress. This could be the major cause of the activation of Akt/MAP kinase and AP1/NF-κB pathways that are linked to the inflammation and microvesication, and histopathological alterations in SKH-1 hairless mouse skin. To further establish a link between CEES-induced DNA damage and signaling pathways and inflammatory responses, skin samples from mice exposed to 2 mg or 4 mg CEES for 9-48 h were subjected to molecular analysis. Our results show a strong CEES-induced phosphorylation of H2A.X and an increase in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible NOS (iNOS), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) levels, indicating the involvement of DNA damage and inflammation in CEES-induced skin injury in male and female mice. Since, our recent studies showed reduction in CEES-induced inflammatory responses by glutathione (GSH), we further assessed the role of oxidative stress in CEES-related DNA damage and the induction of inflammatory molecules. Oral GSH (300 mg/kg) administration 1h before CEES exposure attenuated the increase in both CEES-induced H2A.X phosphorylation (59%) as well as expression of COX-2 (68%), iNOS (53%) and MMP-9 (54%). Collectively, our results indicate that CEES-induced skin injury involves DNA damage and an induction of inflammatory mediators, at least in part via oxidative stress. This study could help in identifying countermeasures that alone or in combination, can target the unveiled pathways for reducing skin injury in humans by SM., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2011
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46. 2-Chloroethyl ethyl sulfide causes microvesication and inflammation-related histopathological changes in male hairless mouse skin.
- Author
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Jain AK, Tewari-Singh N, Orlicky DJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Blister chemically induced, Dermatitis, Contact etiology, Disease Models, Animal, Immunohistochemistry, Male, Mast Cells drug effects, Mast Cells pathology, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas toxicity, Organ Size drug effects, Peroxidase metabolism, Skin injuries, Skin pathology, Blister pathology, Chemical Warfare Agents toxicity, Dermatitis, Contact pathology, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (HD) is a vesicating agent that has been used as a chemical warfare agent in a number of conflicts, posing a major threat in both military conflict and chemical terrorism situations. Currently, we lack effective therapies to rescue skin injuries by HD, in part, due to the lack of appropriate animal models, which are required for conducting laboratory studies to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of promising agents that could potentially be translated in to real HD-caused skin injury. To address this challenge, the present study was designed to assess whether microvesication could be achieved in mouse skin by an HD analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES) exposure; notably, microvesication is a key component of HD skin injury in humans. We found that skin exposure of male SKH-1 hairless mice to CEES caused epidermal-dermal separation indicating microvesication. In other studies, CEES exposure also caused an increase in skin bi-fold thickness, wet/dry weight ratio, epidermal thickness, apoptotic cell death, cell proliferation, and infiltration of macrophages, mast cells and neutrophils in male SKH-1 hairless mouse skin. Taken together, these results establish CEES-induced microvesication and inflammation-related histopathological changes in mouse skin, providing a potentially relevant laboratory model for developing effective countermeasures against HD skin injury in humans., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)
- Published
- 2011
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47. Efficacy of glutathione in ameliorating sulfur mustard analog-induced toxicity in cultured skin epidermal cells and in SKH-1 mouse skin in vivo.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Agarwal C, Huang J, Day BJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Acetylcysteine pharmacology, Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Buthionine Sulfoximine pharmacology, Cell Cycle drug effects, Cell Survival drug effects, Cells, Cultured, DNA biosynthesis, Dermatitis prevention & control, Female, Humans, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas toxicity, Peroxidase metabolism, Skin pathology, Skinfold Thickness, Glutathione pharmacology, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Skin drug effects
- Abstract
Exposure to chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (HD) is reported to cause GSH depletion, which plays an important role in HD-linked oxidative stress and skin injury. Using the HD analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), we evaluated the role of GSH and its efficacy in ameliorating CEES-caused skin injury. Using mouse JB6 and human HaCaT epidermal keratinocytes, we observed both protective and therapeutic effects of exogenous GSH (1 or 10 mM) in attenuating a CEES-caused decrease in cell viability and DNA synthesis, as well as S and G(2)M phase arrest in cell cycle progression. However, the protective effect of GSH was stronger than its ability to reverse CEES-induced cytotoxic effect. The observed effect of GSH could be associated with an increase in intracellular GSH levels after its treatment before or after CEES exposure, which strongly depleted cellular GSH levels. N-Acetyl cysteine, a GSH precursor, also showed both protective and therapeutic effects against CEES-caused cytotoxicity. Buthionine sulfoximine, which reduces cellular GSH levels, caused an increased CEES cytotoxicity in both JB6 and HaCaT cells. In further studies translating GSH effects in cell culture, pretreatment of mice with 300 mg/kg GSH via oral gavage 1 h before topical application of CEES resulted in significant protection against CEES-caused increase in skin bifold and epidermal thickness, apoptotic cell death, and myeloperoxidase activity, which could be associated with increased skin GSH levels. Together, these results highlight GSH efficacy in ameliorating CEES-caused skin injury and further support the need for effective antioxidant countermeasures against skin injury by HD exposure.
- Published
- 2011
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48. Biological and molecular mechanisms of sulfur mustard analogue-induced toxicity in JB6 and HaCaT cells: possible role of ataxia telangiectasia-mutated/ataxia telangiectasia-Rad3-related cell cycle checkpoint pathway.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Gu M, Agarwal C, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Animals, Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins, Caspase 3 metabolism, Cell Death drug effects, Cell Line, Cell Survival drug effects, DNA metabolism, Epidermal Cells, Humans, Mice, Mustard Gas adverse effects, Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerases metabolism, Cell Cycle drug effects, Cell Cycle Proteins metabolism, DNA-Binding Proteins metabolism, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases metabolism, Skin drug effects, Tumor Suppressor Proteins metabolism
- Abstract
Effective medical treatment and preventive measures for chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (HD)-caused incapacitating skin toxicity are lacking, because of limited knowledge of its mechanism of action. The proliferating basal epidermal cells are primary major sites of attack during HD-caused skin injury. Therefore, employing mouse JB6 and human HaCaT epidermal cells, here, we investigated the molecular mechanism of HD analogue 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES)-induced skin cytotoxicity. As compared to the control, up to 1 mM CEES treatment of these cells for 2, 4, and 24 h caused dose-dependent decreases in cell viability and proliferation as measured by DNA synthesis, together with S and G2-M phase arrest in cell cycle progression. Mechanistic studies showed phosphorylation of DNA damage sensors and checkpoint kinases, ataxia telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) at ser1981 and ataxia telangiectasia-Rad3-related (ATR) at ser428 within 30 min of CEES exposure, and modulation of S and G2-M phase-associated cell cycle regulatory proteins, which are downstream targets of ATM and ATR kinases. Hoechst-propidium iodide staining demonstrated that CEES-induced cell death was both necrotic and apoptotic in nature, and the latter was induced at 4 and 24 h of CEES treatment in HaCaT and JB6 cells, respectively. An increase in caspase-3 activity and both caspase-3 and poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP) cleavage coinciding with CEES-caused apoptosis in both cell lines suggested the involvement of the caspase pathway. Together, our findings suggest a DNA-damaging effect of CEES that activates ATM/ATR cell cycle checkpoint signaling as well as caspase-PARP pathways, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis/necrosis in both JB6 and HaCaT cells. The identified molecular targets, quantitative biomarkers, and epidermal cell models in this study have the potential and usefulness in rapid development of effective prophylactic and therapeutic interventions against HD-induced skin toxicity.
- Published
- 2010
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49. Sulfur mustard analog induces oxidative stress and activates signaling cascades in the skin of SKH-1 hairless mice.
- Author
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Pal A, Tewari-Singh N, Gu M, Agarwal C, Huang J, Day BJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Aldehydes metabolism, Animals, Cyclic N-Oxides metabolism, DNA Damage drug effects, Deoxyadenosines metabolism, Dermatitis, Irritant genetics, Female, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas administration & dosage, NF-kappa B metabolism, Oncogene Protein v-akt biosynthesis, Oncogene Protein v-akt genetics, Oxidation-Reduction drug effects, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases biosynthesis, Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases genetics, Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Acetyl-Transferring Kinase, Skin drug effects, Skin pathology, Transcription Factor AP-1 metabolism, Transcriptional Activation, Dermatitis, Irritant metabolism, MAP Kinase Signaling System drug effects, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Oxidative Stress drug effects, Skin metabolism
- Abstract
A monofunctional analog of the chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard (HD), 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), induces tissue damage similar to HD. Herein we studied the molecular mechanisms associated with CEES-induced skin inflammation and toxicity in SKH-1 hairless mice. Topical CEES exposure caused an increase in oxidative stress as observed by enhanced 4-hydroxynonenal and 5,5-dimethyl-2-(8-octanoic acid)-1-pyrroline N-oxide protein adduct formation and an increase in protein oxidation. The CEES-induced increase in the formation of 8-oxo-2-deoxyguanosine indicated DNA oxidation. CEES exposure instigated an increase in the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs; ERK1/2, JNK, and p38). After CEES exposure, a significant increase in the phosphorylation of Akt at Ser473 and Thr308 was observed as well as upregulation of its upstream effector, PDK1, in mouse skin tissue. Subsequently, CEES exposure caused activation of AP-1 family proteins and the NF-kappaB pathway, including phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaBalpha in addition to phosphorylation of the NF-kappaB essential modulator. Collectively, our results indicate that CEES induces oxidative stress and the activation of the transcription factors AP-1 and NF-kappaB via upstream signaling pathways including MAPKs and Akt in SKH-1 hairless mouse skin. These novel molecular targets could be supportive in the development of prophylactic and therapeutic interventions against HD-related skin injury.
- Published
- 2009
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50. Inflammatory biomarkers of sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced skin injury in SKH-1 hairless mice.
- Author
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Tewari-Singh N, Rana S, Gu M, Pal A, Orlicky DJ, White CW, and Agarwal R
- Subjects
- Administration, Topical, Analysis of Variance, Animals, Apoptosis drug effects, Cell Proliferation drug effects, Disease Models, Animal, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Epidermis drug effects, Epidermis metabolism, Female, Inflammation metabolism, Mast Cells metabolism, Mice, Mice, Hairless, Mustard Gas administration & dosage, Mustard Gas toxicity, Neutrophil Infiltration drug effects, Peroxidase metabolism, Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen metabolism, Random Allocation, Skin cytology, Skin injuries, Biomarkers, Pharmacological metabolism, Inflammation chemically induced, Mustard Gas analogs & derivatives, Skin pathology
- Abstract
Sulfur mustard (HD) is an alkylating and cytotoxic chemical warfare agent, which inflicts severe skin toxicity and an inflammatory response. Effective medical countermeasures against HD-caused skin toxicity are lacking due to limited knowledge of related mechanisms, which is mainly attributed to the requirement of more applicable and efficient animal skin toxicity models. Using a less toxic analog of HD, chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), we identified quantifiable inflammatory biomarkers of CEES-induced skin injury in dose- (0.05-2 mg) and time- (3-168 h) response experiments, and developed a CEES-induced skin toxicity SKH-1 hairless mouse model. Topical CEES treatment at high doses caused a significant dose-dependent increase in skin bi-fold thickness indicating edema. Histopathological evaluation of CEES-treated skin sections revealed increases in epidermal and dermal thickness, number of pyknotic basal keratinocytes, dermal capillaries, neutrophils, macrophages, mast cells, and desquamation of epidermis. CEES-induced dose-dependent increases in epidermal cell apoptosis and basal cell proliferation were demonstrated by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (tdt)-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling and proliferative cell nuclear antigen stainings, respectively. Following an increase in the mast cells, myeloperoxidase activity in the inflamed skin peaked at 24 h after CEES exposure coinciding with neutrophil infiltration. F4/80 staining of skin integuments revealed an increase in the number of macrophages after 24 h of CEES exposure. In conclusion, these results establish CEES-induced quantifiable inflammatory biomarkers in a more applicable and efficient SKH-1 hairless mouse model, which could be valuable for agent efficacy studies to develop potential prophylactic and therapeutic interventions for HD-induced skin toxicity.
- Published
- 2009
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