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This study aimed to describe the association of healthy eating literacy (HEL) with energy, nutrients, and food consumption in young women who had normal and lean weight at a Japanese university, considering their resident status.Cross-sectional data from the Ochanomizu Health Study were used in this study. Participants answered a self-administered, two-part, anonymous survey in 2018 and 2019. A total of 203 female undergraduate students with lean and normal body mass index (BMI) were included in the analysis. Single and stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the association of HEL and resident status with healthy food consumption, such as vegetables, fish, and shellfish. The dependent variables were HEL and resident status, and the covariates were age, BMI, and the total metabolic equivalents.The median (25th and 75th percentiles) age, BMI, and total HEL score were 20 (19, 21) years, 20.2 (18.9, 21.3) kg/mThis study provides an insight into the association between HEL and dietary consumption in young women with normal and lean BMI.

BackgroundMusculocontractural Ehlers−Danlos syndrome is caused by biallelic loss-of-function variants in CHST14 (mcEDS-CHST14) or DSE (mcEDS-DSE). Although 48 patients in 33 families with mcEDS-CHST14 have been reported, the spectrum of pathogenic variants, accurate prevalence of various manifestations and detailed natural history have not been systematically investigated.MethodsWe collected detailed and comprehensive clinical and molecular information regarding previously reported and newly identified patients with mcEDS-CHST14 through international collaborations.ResultsSixty-six patients in 48 families (33 males/females; 0–59 years), including 18 newly reported patients, were evaluated. Japanese was the predominant ethnicity (27 families), associated with three recurrent variants. No apparent genotype–phenotype correlation was noted. Specific craniofacial (large fontanelle with delayed closure, downslanting palpebral fissures and hypertelorism), skeletal (characteristic finger morphologies, joint hypermobility, multiple congenital contractures, progressive talipes deformities and recurrent joint dislocation), cutaneous (hyperextensibility, fine/acrogeria-like/wrinkling palmar creases and bruisability) and ocular (refractive errors) features were observed in most patients (>90%). Large subcutaneous haematomas, constipation, cryptorchidism, hypotonia and motor developmental delay were also common (>80%). Median ages at the initial episode of dislocation or large subcutaneous haematoma were both 6 years. Nine patients died; their median age was 12 years. Several features, including joint and skin characteristics (hypermobility/extensibility and fragility), were significantly more frequent in patients with mcEDS-CHST14 than in eight reported patients with mcEDS-DSE.ConclusionThis first international collaborative study of mcEDS-CHST14 demonstrated that the subtype represents a multisystem disorder with unique set of clinical phenotypes consisting of multiple malformations and progressive fragility-related manifestations; these require lifelong, multidisciplinary healthcare approaches.

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between mindful eating and nutritional intake, food consumption, and healthful and unhealthful plant-based dietary patterns in young Japanese women. The sample comprised 215 female undergraduates who responded to a two-questionnaire anonymous survey conducted in Tokyo, Japan in 2018 and 2019 from November to December. We measured mindful eating status using the Expanded Mindful Eating Scale (EMES) and used Japanese plant-based dietary indices to determine plant-based dietary patterns. Partial correlation analyses were conducted to determine the correlation of mindful eating with energy and nutrient intake, food consumption, and plant-based dietary patterns, after adjusting for demographics and body mass index. Participants with higher sub-scores in “health of the planet” and “awareness and appreciation for food” ate higher quantities of several micronutrients and plant-based foods and were more likely to have a healthful plant-based dietary pattern. They were also less likely to have an unhealthful plant-based dietary pattern. In contrast, participants with higher scores in “non-judgmental awareness” ate less protein, whole grains, and vegetables, and were likely to have an unhealthful plant-based dietary pattern. This study is the first to show that young Japanese women with normal or lean body weight were more likely to consume healthful plant-based foods when they ate mindfully. Opinions of respected authorities, based on descriptive studies, narrative reviews, clinical experience, or reports of expert committees.

Background Intestinal ischemia caused by hemorrhagic shock is known to induce systemic inflammatory responses. Previous studies have shown that mesenteric lymph (ML) plays a crucial role in gut-mediated inflammation. Lipid mediators, such as lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs) which contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), are present in the post-shock ML. Exosomes are also present in the ML and act as transcellular carriers of lipids; however, their role in post-shock systemic inflammation has not been revealed. Here, we aimed to identify changes in lipid mediators in ML exosomes after intestinal ischemia. Methods Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent laparotomy, followed by ML duct cannulation. Animals were subjected to 60 min of intestinal ischemia by superior mesenteric artery clamping, followed by 120 min of reperfusion. ML was obtained before and after intestinal ischemia and exosomes were isolated from ML by ultracentrifugation. The biological activity of ML exosomes was determined using the monocyte NF-κB activation assay. Lipids of ML exosomes were extracted and quantified by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Results ML exosomes-induced NF-κB activation significantly increased after intestinal ischemia and lipid analysis revealed a significant increase in the concentration of PUFA-containing LPCs. Additionally, PUFA-containing LPCs also induced NF-κB activation. Conclusion Our results suggest that biologically active lipid mediators in ML exosomes may be involved in the inflammatory response after intestinal ischemia. Level of evidence Not applicable (Basic Science paper).

Background Sensory differences are related to the autistic traits, and previous studies have shown a positive correlation between sensory differences and internalizing problems. In this study, we hypothesized that sensory differences and suffering due to sensory differences mediates the relationships between autistic traits and internalizing problems. Methods A total of 346 female Japanese university students completed questionnaires regarding their autistic traits, suffering due to sensory differences, and internalizing problems. Moreover, 114 participants completed a questionnaire related to sensory differences. Results Autistic traits were correlated with Low Registration and Sensation Avoiding. These sensory differences were also correlated with suffering due to sensory differences and internalizing problems. Moreover, path analysis indicated that the higher the suffering due to Low Registration and Sensation Avoiding was, the greater the internalizing problems in those who showed these sensory differences. Conclusions Female university students with serious suffering due to sensory differences may need support in managing their suffering and internalizing problems. Further research will help suggest support that these people require, at school and elsewhere.

Intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury leads to multiple organ injuries via gut-derived mediators following severe injury. Growing evidence suggests that exosomes secreted from intestinal epithelial cells are heavily involved in the development of systemic inflammation, but a full elucidation of its pathology remains to be completed. To produce an integrated understanding of its pathology, this study aimed to reveal the changes in exosome content after ischemic stimulation. Our result showed (1) the proteins involved in inflammation by catalyzing RNAs were upregulated, (2) hsa-miR-21-5p, hsa-miR-23a-3p, and hsa-miR-30d-5p levels were increased while hsa-miR-124-3p level was decreased, (3) the increase in unsaturated lysophosphatidylcholines levels. These results together with those of previous studies, suggest that lysophosphatidylcholines may activate the NK-κB pathway. The proteins and microRNAs jointly act to disrupt negative feedback, thereby increasing inflammation. Thus, our results clarify part of the mechanism of multi-organ failure after intestinal ischemic recanalization, thereby providing a new target for treatment.

Cardiolipin (CL) localizes to curved membranes such as cristae in mitochondria as well as cell poles and division sites in rod-shaped bacteria. CL is believed to stabilize the membrane curvature by localizing to sites of negative curvature. However, this hypothesis has not been tested because of a lack of appropriate tools to distinguish CL inside and outside lipid bilayers. In this study, we provided the first evidence that CL localized to regions of negative curvature in Escherichia coli using the novel CL probe erylysin A-EGFP (EryA-EGFP). Staining in E.coli illustrated that CL localized to the inner leaflets at cell poles and the outer leaflets at division sites. Furthermore, we revealed that EryA-EGFP inhibited cytokinesis. We propose that cytokinesis completes after CL in the outer leaflets transfers to the inner leaflets at division sites by inspecting the mechanism of inhibition of cytokinesis. Moreover, the cytoskeletal protein RodZ was abnormally distributed when cytokinesis was inhibited by EryA-EGFP, suggesting that RodZ participates in cytokinesis. In summary, we revealed the detailed distribution of CL and proposed a new model of cytokinesis.

Musculocontractural Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is caused by biallelic loss-of-function variants inWe collected detailed and comprehensive clinical and molecular information regarding previously reported and newly identified patients with mcEDS-Sixty-six patients in 48 families (33 males/females; 0-59 years), including 18 newly reported patients, were evaluated. Japanese was the predominant ethnicity (27 families), associated with three recurrent variants. No apparent genotype-phenotype correlation was noted. Specific craniofacial (large fontanelle with delayed closure, downslanting palpebral fissures and hypertelorism), skeletal (characteristic finger morphologies, joint hypermobility, multiple congenital contractures, progressive talipes deformities and recurrent joint dislocation), cutaneous (hyperextensibility, fine/acrogeria-like/wrinkling palmar creases and bruisability) and ocular (refractive errors) features were observed in most patients (90%). Large subcutaneous haematomas, constipation, cryptorchidism, hypotonia and motor developmental delay were also common (80%). Median ages at the initial episode of dislocation or large subcutaneous haematoma were both 6 years. Nine patients died; their median age was 12 years. Several features, including joint and skin characteristics (hypermobility/extensibility and fragility), were significantly more frequent in patients with mcEDS-This first international collaborative study of mcEDS

This study aimed to investigate the correlation between mindful eating and nutritional intake, food consumption, and healthful and unhealthful plant-based dietary patterns in young Japanese women.The sample comprised 215 female undergraduates who responded to a two-questionnaire anonymous survey conducted in Tokyo, Japan in 2018 and 2019 from November to December. We measured mindful eating status using the Expanded Mindful Eating Scale (EMES) and used Japanese plant-based dietary indices to determine plant-based dietary patterns. Partial correlation analyses were conducted to determine the correlation of mindful eating with energy and nutrient intake, food consumption, and plant-based dietary patterns, after adjusting for demographics and body mass index.Participants with higher sub-scores in "health of the planet" and "awareness and appreciation for food" ate higher quantities of several micronutrients and plant-based foods and were more likely to have a healthful plant-based dietary pattern. They were also less likely to have an unhealthful plant-based dietary pattern. In contrast, participants with higher scores in "non-judgmental awareness" ate less protein, whole grains, and vegetables, and were likely to have an unhealthful plant-based dietary pattern.This study is the first to show that young Japanese women with normal or lean body weight were more likely to consume healthful plant-based foods when they ate mindfully.Opinions of respected authorities, based on descriptive studies, narrative reviews, clinical experience, or reports of expert committees.

Having a late chronotype, that is, the tendency to go to sleep and wake up at later hours, influences an individual's physical and mental health. Despite a few studies noting the association of chronotype with healthy dietary patterns, this relationship remains unclear.This study aimed to describe the association of chronotype with healthful and unhealthful plant-based diet quality in female Japanese undergraduate students.Cross-sectional.A total of 218 female university students in Tokyo, Japan.Healthful and unhealthful plant-based dietary index-Japanese version (hPDI-J and uPDI-J), calculated using the validated brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire.A five-model stepwise multiple linear regression analysis was conducted. Independent variables were hPDI-J and uPDI-J scores, and dependent variables were various lifestyle habits related to the circadian rhythm and demographic characteristics.Mean (standard deviation) sleep duration, midpoint of sleep, sleep latency time, and social jetlag were 411 (60) min, 03:56 (00:57), 21 (27) min, and 50 (39) min, respectively. Chronotype and several variables, such as residential status, energy and alcohol intake, and nutritional knowledge, were associated with healthful and unhealthful plant-based diet quality. Individuals who had higher hPDI-J scores were more likely to have an earlier chronotype (β = -0.168, P = 0.019) and better nutritional knowledge (β = 0.164, P = 0.022) than those with lower hPDI-J scores. Individuals were more likely to have higher uPDI-J scores if they were living alone (β = -0.301, P 0.001), had a later chronotype (β = 0.181, P = 0.001), higher frequency of snacking (β = 0.164, P = 0.019), lower total energy (β = -0.445, P 0.001), and worse nutritional knowledge (β = -0.172, P = 0.001).This study provided new evidence as to the relationship between sleep and dietary habits, the interaction of which may affect women's health.

PurposeTo develop and validate the Expanded Mindful Eating Scale (EMES), an expanded mindful eating model created for the promotion of health and sustainability.Design/methodology/approachA cross-sectional study using self-administered questionnaire surveys on Ochanomizu Health Study (OHS) was conducted. The survey was provided to 1,388 female university students in Tokyo, Japan. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and a partial correlation analysis were used to confirm construct and criterion validity. Internal consistency of the EMES was confirmed to calculate Cronbach's alpha.FindingsThe response rate was 38.7 % (n = 537). Mean BMI was 20.21 ± 2.12, and 18.8% of them were classified as “lean” (BMI r = −0.138, −0.315, −0.339, −0.281 and 0.149, p Practical implicationsThe authors suggest the possibility that practitioners and researchers of mindful eating that includes this new concept can use authors’ novel scale as an effective measurement tool.Originality/valueThe EMES, which can multidimensionally measure the concept of the expanded model of mindful eating was first developed in this study.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA) is a naturally occurring phospholipid mediator that contains a unique cyclic phosphate ring at the sn-2 and sn-3 positions of its glycerol backbone. Using mouse models for multiple sclerosis (cuprizone-induced demyelination and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis) and traumatic brain injury, we revealed that cPA and its metabolically stabilized cPA derivative, 2-carba-cPA (2ccPA), have potential to protect against neuroinflammation. In this study, we investigated whether 2ccPA has anti-inflammatory effect on peripheral immune function or not using inflammation-induced macrophages-like cell line, THP-1 monocytes differentiated by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated THP-1 cells were found to have higher expression of the mRNAs of several inflammation-related cytokines and of the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2); however, when THP-1 cells were stimulated by LPS in the presence of 2ccPA, the increase in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine and Cox-2 mRNA was attenuated. 2ccPA treatment also decreased the amount of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) produced by LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells and decreased expression of the mRNA of prostaglandin E receptor 2 (EP2, PTGER2), a PGE2 receptor that mediates inflammation. These results indicate that 2ccPA has anti-inflammatory properties., Highlights • 2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid inhibits prostaglandin E2 production. • 2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid has anti-inflammatory effect. • 2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid has effect on peripheral immune function.

International audience; We identified a novel, nontoxic mushroom protein that specifically binds to a complex of sphingomyelin (SM), a major sphingolipid in mammalian cells, and cholesterol (Chol). The purified protein, termed nakanori, labeled cell surface domains in an SM- and Chol-dependent manner and decorated specific lipid domains that colocalized with inner leaflet small GTPase H-Ras, but not K-Ras. The use of nakanori as a lipid-domain-specific probe revealed altered distribution and dynamics of SM/Chol on the cell surface of Niemann-Pick type C fibroblasts, possibly explaining some of the disease phenotype. In addition, that nakanori treatment of epithelial cells after influenza virus infection potently inhibited virus release demonstrates the therapeutic value of targeting specific lipid domains for anti-viral treatment.-Makino, A., Abe, M., Ishitsuka, R., Murate, M., Kishimoto, T., Sakai, S., Hullin-Matsuda, F., Shimada, Y., Inaba, T., Miyatake, H., Tanaka, H., Kurahashi, A., Pack, C.-G., Kasai, R. S., Kubo, S., Schieber, N. L., Dohmae, N., Tochio, N., Hagiwara, K., Sasaki, Y., Aida, Y., Fujimori, F., Kigawa, T., Nishibori, K., Parton, R. G., Kusumi, A., Sako, Y., Anderluh, G., Yamashita, M., Kobayashi, T., Greimel, P., Kobayashi, T. A novel sphingomyelin/cholesterol domain-specific probe reveals the dynamics of the membrane domains during virus release and in Niemann-Pick type C.

BACKGROUND Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is associated with a variety of inflammatory processes related to polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN)-endothelial cell interactions. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the interactions and the causative isoform(s) of PLA2 remain elusive. In addition, we recently showed that calcium-independent PLA2γ (iPLA2γ), but not cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2), is responsible for the cytotoxic functions of human PMN including respiratory bursts, degranulation, and chemotaxis. We therefore hypothesized that iPLA2γ is a prerequisite for the PMN recruitment cascade into the site of inflammation. The aim of this study was to elucidate the roles of the three major phospholipases A2, iPLA2, cPLA2 and secretory PLA2, in leukocyte rolling and adherence and in the surface expression of β2-integrins in vivo and in vitro in response to well-defined stimuli. METHODS Male Wistar rats were pretreated with PLA2 inhibitors selective for iPLA2β, iPLA2γ, cPLA2, or secretory PLA2. Leukocyte rolling/adherence in the mesenteric venules superfused with platelet-activating factor (PAF) were quantified by intravital microscopy. Furthermore, isolated human PMNs or whole blood were incubated with each PLA2 inhibitor and then activated with formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP) or PAF. PMN adherence was assessed by counting cells bound to purified fibrinogen, and the surface expression of lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 and macrophage antigen 1 (Mac-1) was measured by flow cytometry. RESULTS The iPLA2γ-specific inhibitor almost completely inhibited the fMLP/PAF-induced leukocyte adherence in vivo and in vitro and also decreased the fMLP/PAF-stimulated surface expression of Mac-1 by 60% and 95%, respectively. In contrast, the other inhibitors did not affect these cellular functions. CONCLUSION iPLA2γ seems to be involved in leukocyte/PMN adherence in vivo and in vitro as well as in the up-regulation of Mac-1 in vitro in response to PAF/fMLP. This enzyme is therefore likely to be a major regulator in the PMN recruitment cascade.

The role of calcium-independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2), a component of the three major PLA2 families, in acute/chronic inflammatory processes remains elusive. Previous investigations have documented iPLA2-mediated respiratory burst of neutrophils (PMNs); however, the causative isoform of iPLA2 is unidentified. We also demonstrated that the iPLA2γ-specific inhibitor attenuates trauma/hemorrhagic shock-induced lung injury. Therefore, iPLA2γ may be implicated in acute inflammation. In addition, arachidonic acid (AA), which is primarily produced by cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2), is known to display PMN cytotoxicity, although the relationship between AA and the cytotoxic function is still being debated on. We therefore hypothesized that iPLA2γ regulates PMN cytotoxicity via AA-independent signaling pathways. The study aim was to distinguish the role of intracellular phospholipases A2, iPLA2, and cPLA2, in human PMN cytotoxicity and explore the possibility of the presence of signaling molecule(s) other than AA.Isolated human PMNs were incubated with the PLA2 inhibitor selective for iPLA2β, iPLA2γ, or cPLA2 and then activated with formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP) or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Superoxide production was assayed according to the superoxide dismutase-inhibitable cytochrome c reduction method, and the degree of elastase release was measured using a p-nitroanilide-conjugated elastase-specific substrate. In addition, chemotaxis toward platelet activating factor/fMLP was determined with a modified Boyden chamber system.The iPLA2γ-specific inhibitor reduced the fMLP/PMA-stimulated superoxide generation by 90% and 30%, respectively; in addition, the inhibitor completely blocked the fMLP/PMA-activated elastase release. However, the cPLA2-specific inhibitor did not abrogate these effects to any degree at all concentrations. Likewise, the inhibitor for iPLA2γ, but not iPLA2β or cPLA2, completely inhibited the platelet activating factor/fMLP-induced chemotaxis.iPLA2 is involved in extracellular reactive oxygen species production, elastase release, and chemotaxis in response to well-defined stimuli. In addition, the ineffectiveness of the cPLA2 inhibitor suggests that AA may not be relevant to these cytotoxic functions.

Metabolic disorders including obesity and insulin resistance have their basis in dysregulated lipid metabolism and low-grade inflammation. In a microarray search of unique lipase-related genes whose expressions are associated with obesity, we found that two secreted phospholipase A2s (sPLA2s), PLA2G5 and PLA2G2E, were robustly induced in adipocytes of obese mice. Analyses of Pla2g5−/− and Pla2g2e−/− mice revealed distinct and previously unrecognized roles of these sPLA2s in diet-induced obesity. PLA2G5 hydrolyzed phosphatidylcholine in fat-overladen low-density lipoprotein to release unsaturated fatty acids, which prevented palmitate-induced M1 macrophage polarization. As such, PLA2G5 tipped the immune balance toward an M2 state, thereby counteracting adipose tissue inflammation, insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia and obesiy. PLA2G2E altered minor lipoprotein phospholipids, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine, and moderately facilitated lipid accumulation in adipose tissue and liver. Collectively, the identification of “metabolic sPLA2s” adds this gene family to a growing list of lipolytic enzymes that act as metabolic coordinators.

PLA2G2D ameliorates skin inflammation through mobilizing pro-resolving lipid mediators., Resolution of inflammation is an active process that is mediated in part by antiinflammatory lipid mediators. Although phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes have been implicated in the promotion of inflammation through mobilizing lipid mediators, the molecular entity of PLA2 subtypes acting upstream of antiinflammatory lipid mediators remains unknown. Herein, we show that secreted PLA2 group IID (PLA2G2D) is preferentially expressed in CD11c+ dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages and displays a pro-resolving function. In hapten-induced contact dermatitis, resolution, not propagation, of inflammation was compromised in skin and LNs of PLA2G2D-deficient mice (Pla2g2d−/−), in which the immune balance was shifted toward a proinflammatory state over an antiinflammatory state. Bone marrow-derived DCs from Pla2g2d−/− mice were hyperactivated and elicited skin inflammation after intravenous transfer into mice. Lipidomics analysis revealed that PLA2G2D in the LNs contributed to mobilization of a pool of polyunsaturated fatty acids that could serve as precursors for antiinflammatory/pro-resolving lipid mediators such as resolvin D1 and 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2, which reduced Th1 cytokine production and surface MHC class II expression in LN cells or DCs. Altogether, our results highlight PLA2G2D as a “resolving sPLA2” that ameliorates inflammation through mobilizing pro-resolving lipid mediators and points to a potential use of this enzyme for treatment of inflammatory disorders.

Background: Positive associations have been observed between cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), but their causal relationship has not been clarified. Nevertheless, guidelines from relevant medical societies recommend using cholesterol lowering medication (statin) for both types of patients. Medicines with several different action mechanisms have been developed, and the effectiveness of different lifestyle modifications has been studied extensively for the prevention of DM, which was successful in improving clinical marker status in relatively short-term treatments, but none have been shown to be effective in improving long-term outcomes (mortality from CVD and all causes). Summary: Statin-induced suppression of prenyl intermediates in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway has been linked to stimulated atherosclerosis and heart failure. On the other hand, certain types of vegetable oil and hydrogenated oil shortened the survival of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats by decreasing platelet number, increasing hemorrhagic tendency and damaging kidney functions, which could not be accounted for by their fatty acid and phytosterol compositions. These vegetable oils and medicines such as statin and warfarin share, in part, a common mechanism to inhibit vitamin K2-dependent processes, which was interpreted to lead to increased onset of CVD, DM, chronic kidney disease, bone fracture and even mental disorder. Impaired vitamin K2-dependent processes by some types of vegetable oils and medicines, but not plasma high low density lipoprotein cholesterol, were proposed as the cause of CVD, DM and other lifestyle-related diseases. High n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio of ingested foods, but not animal fats, was emphasized to be another risk factor for many of the diseases described above. Key Messages: To date, no randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have been performed to prove the above interpretation. However, the opposite types of RCT trials have been performed by increasing the intake of high-linoleic vegetable oils and reducing that of animal fats, which resulted in increased CVD and all-cause mortality. The amounts of these vegetable oils to exhibit adverse effects in animal studies are not huge (

BACKGROUND: After trauma and hemorrhagic shock (T/HS), a variety of inflammatory mediators enter the systemic circulation through mesenteric lymph ducts, leading to acute lung injury and multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome. Recent studies have demonstrated that post-HS mesenteric lymph (PHSML) activates polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) and causes vascular endothelial cell and red blood cell dysfunction. Furthermore, PHSML contains proinflammatory mediators, such as biologically active lipids. The purpose of this study was to identify the lipid mediators in PHSML and plasma by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and then estimate the biologic activities of the identified lipids on PMNs. METHODS: PHSML was collected from male Sprague-Dawley rats undergoing trauma (laparotomy) plus HS (40 mm Hg, 30 minutes) or sham shock (SS). The lipids in PHSML and plasma were extracted using the methods of Bligh and Dyer, and liquid chromatography/ electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was performed. The biologic activities (superoxide production and elastase release) of identified lipids on human PMNs were tested. RESULTS: Phosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), phosphatidylethanolamine, lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE), and sphingomyelin were detected in the PHSML. Furthermore, linoleoyl, arachidonoyl, and docosahexaenoyl LPCs and LPEs significantly increased in the PHSML of the T/HS group as compared with those of the T/SS group. In the plasma, arachidonoyl and docosahexaenoyl LPCs of the T/HS group also significantly increased in comparison with that of the T/SS group. Linoleoyl and arachidonoyl LPCs and LPEs showed the priming activity on N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanineYactivated PMNs. The elastase release was also induced by linoleoyl and arachidonoyl LPCs. CONCLUSION: Mesenteric lymph after T/HS contains biologically active lipids, such as LPCs and LPEs with polyunsaturated fatty acids, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury/multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome. (J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012;72: 1541Y1547.

The role of tight junctions (TJs) in the establishment and maintenance of lipid polarity in epithelial cells has long been a subject of controversy. We have addressed this issue using lysenin, a toxin derived from earthworms, and an influenza virus labeled with a fluorescent lipid, octadecylrhodamine B (R18). When epithelial cells are stained with lysenin, lysenin selectively binds to their apical membranes. Using an artificial liposome, we demonstrated that lysenin recognizes the membrane domains where sphingomyelins are clustered. Interestingly, lysenin selectively stained the apical membranes of epithelial cells depleted of zonula occludens proteins (ZO-deficient cells), which completely lack TJs. Furthermore, the fluorescent lipid inserted into the apical membrane by fusion with the influenza virus did not diffuse to the lateral membrane in ZO-deficient epithelial cells. This study revealed that sphingomyelin-cluster formation occurs only in the apical membrane and that lipid polarity is maintained even in the absence of TJs.

Although perturbed lipid metabolism can often lead to skin abnormality, the role of phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) in skin homeostasis is poorly understood. In the present study we found that group X-secreted PLA(2) (sPLA(2)-X) was expressed in the outermost epithelium of hair follicles in synchrony with the anagen phase of hair cycling. Transgenic mice overexpressing sPLA(2)-X (PLA2G10-Tg) displayed alopecia, which was accompanied by hair follicle distortion with reduced expression of genes related to hair development, during a postnatal hair cycle. Additionally, the epidermis and sebaceous glands of PLA2G10-Tg skin were hyperplasic. Proteolytic activation of sPLA(2)-X in PLA2G10-Tg skin was accompanied by preferential hydrolysis of phosphatidylethanolamine species with polyunsaturated fatty acids as well as elevated production of some if not all eicosanoids. Importantly, the skin of Pla2g10-deficient mice had abnormal hair follicles with noticeable reduction in a subset of hair genes, a hypoplasic outer root sheath, a reduced number of melanin granules, and unexpected up-regulation of prostanoid synthesis. Collectively, our study highlights the spatiotemporal expression of sPLA(2)-X in hair follicles, the presence of skin-specific machinery leading to sPLA(2)-X activation, a functional link of sPLA(2)-X with hair follicle homeostasis, and compartmentalization of the prostanoid pathway in hair follicles and epidermis.

Although the secreted phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) family has been generally thought to participate in pathologic events such as inflammation and atherosclerosis, relatively high and constitutive expression of group X sPLA(2) (sPLA(2)-X) in restricted sites such as reproductive organs, the gastrointestinal tract, and peripheral neurons raises a question as to the roles played by this enzyme in the physiology of reproduction, digestion, and the nervous system. Herein we used mice with gene disruption or transgenic overexpression of sPLA(2)-X to clarify the homeostatic functions of this enzyme at these locations. Our results suggest that sPLA(2)-X regulates 1) the fertility of spermatozoa, not oocytes, beyond the step of flagellar motility, 2) gastrointestinal phospholipid digestion, perturbation of which is eventually linked to delayed onset of a lean phenotype with reduced adiposity, decreased plasma leptin, and improved muscle insulin tolerance, and 3) neuritogenesis of dorsal root ganglia and the duration of peripheral pain nociception. Thus, besides its inflammatory action proposed previously, sPLA(2)-X participates in physiologic processes including male fertility, gastrointestinal phospholipid digestion linked to adiposity, and neuronal outgrowth and sensing.

Many lipid-binding proteins such as pleurotolysin and ostreolysin have been isolated from the edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus .I n this s tudy, we detected a novel lipid-binding protein with a molecular weight of 62kDa by measuring via centrifugation the association of aqueous extracts of the mushroom with lipid vesicles composed of various phospholipids. The 62-kDa protein (p62) was purified by sedimentation of the mixture of protein extracts and acidic phospholipid-containing lipid vesicles. The purified p62 bound to phosphatidylglycerol (PG)/phosphatidylcholine/cholesterol (5:45:50) vesicles but not to vesicles composed of other phospholipids including phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidic acid, lysoPS, and lysophosphatidylinositol. The p62 protein specifically associated with the PG-containing vesicles but not with other polyglycerophospholipid vesicles consisting of cardiolipin, bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate, monolysocardiolipin, or dilysocardiolipin, suggesting that p62 recognized a precise molecular structure of PG. Intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of p62 was changed by incubation of p62 with PG-containing vesicles. Staining of giant unilamellar vesicles with fluorescence-labeled p62 showed that p62 bound to PG-containing vesicles but not PS-containing vesicles. These observations signify the potential usefulness of p62 as a tool for studying the functions of PG molecules in biological membranes.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA), a structural analog of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), is one of the simplest phospholipids found in every cell type. cPA is a specific, high-affinity antagonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ); however, the molecular mechanism by which cPA inhibits cellular proliferation remains to be clarified. In this study, we found that inhibition of PPARγ prevents proliferation of human colon cancer HT-29 cells. cPA suppressed cell growth, and this effect was reversed by the addition of a PPARγ agonist. These results indicate that the physiological effects of cPA are partly due to PPARγ inhibition. Our results identify PPARγ as a molecular mediator of cPA activity in HT-29 cells, and suggest that cPA and the PPARγ pathway might be therapeutic targets in the treatment of colon cancer.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (1-acyl-2,3-cyclic-glycerophosphate, CPA), one of nature's simplest phospholipids, is found in cells from slime mold to humans and has a largely unknown function. We find here that CPA is generated in mammalian cells in a stimulus-coupled manner by phospholipase D2 (PLD2) and binds to and inhibits the nuclear hormone receptor PPARgamma with nanomolar affinity and high specificity through stabilizing its interaction with the corepressor SMRT. CPA production inhibits the PPARgamma target-gene transcription that normally drives adipocytic differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells, lipid accumulation in RAW264.7 cells and primary mouse macrophages, and arterial wall remodeling in a rat model in vivo. Inhibition of PLD2 by shRNA, a dominant-negative mutant, or a small molecule inhibitor blocks CPA production and relieves PPARgamma inhibition. We conclude that CPA is a second messenger and a physiological inhibitor of PPARgamma, revealing that PPARgamma is regulated by endogenous agonists as well as by antagonists.

Although lipid metabolism is thought to be important for the proper maturation and function of spermatozoa, the molecular mechanisms that underlie this dynamic process in the gonads remains incompletely understood. Here, we show that group III phospholipase A2 (sPLA2-III), a member of the secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) family, is expressed in the mouse proximal epididymal epithelium and that targeted disruption of the gene encoding this protein (Pla2g3) leads to defects in sperm maturation and fertility. Although testicular spermatogenesis in Pla2g3–/– mice was grossly normal, spermatozoa isolated from the cauda epididymidis displayed hypomotility, and their ability to fertilize intact eggs was markedly impaired. Transmission EM further revealed that epididymal spermatozoa in Pla2g3–/– mice had both flagella with abnormal axonemes and aberrant acrosomal structures. During epididymal transit, phosphatidylcholine in the membrane of Pla2g3+/+ sperm underwent a dramatic shift in its acyl groups from oleic, linoleic, and arachidonic acids to docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, whereas this membrane lipid remodeling event was compromised in sperm from Pla2g3–/– mice. Moreover, the gonads of Pla2g3–/– mice contained less 12/15-lipoxygenase metabolites than did those of Pla2g3+/+ mice. Together, our results reveal a role for the atypical sPLA2 family member sPLA2-III in epididymal lipid homeostasis and indicate that its perturbation may lead to sperm dysfunction.

Degradation of the extracellular matrix by proteases secreted by invading tumor cells is thought to be essential for metastasis. Using an in vitro transcellular migration assay model, we examined the requirement of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) in the invasion of MM1 rat hepatoma cells through normal mesothelial cell monolayers. Here we show that MM1 cells transmigrate using MMPs not expressed in the tumor cells but secreted by host mesothelial cells. Additionally, the amount of MMP secreted by mesothelial cells was increased by co-culture with hepatoma cells. Our results point to the role of normal host cells in the tumor microenvironment as a source of invasion factors necessary for the metastatic process.

PLA2 (phospholipase A2) group III is an atypical sPLA2 (secretory PLA2) that is homologous with bee venom PLA2 rather than with other mammalian sPLA2s. In the present paper, we show that endogenous group III sPLA2 (PLA2G3) is expressed in mouse skin and that Tg (transgenic) mice overexpressing human PLA2G3 spontaneously develop skin inflammation. Pla2g3-Tg mice over 9 months of age frequently developed dermatitis with hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, parakeratosis, erosion, ulcer and sebaceous gland hyperplasia. The dermatitis was accompanied by infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages and by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and prostaglandin E2. In addition, Pla2g3-Tg mice had increased lymph aggregates and mucus in the airway, lymphocytic sialadenitis, hepatic extramedullary haemopoiesis, splenomegaly with increased populations of granulocytes and monocytes/macrophages, and increased serum IgG1. Collectively, these observations provide the first demonstration of spontaneous development of inflammation in mice with Tg overexpression of mammalian sPLA2.

Among the many mammalian secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) enzymes, PLA2G3 (group III secreted phospholipase A2) is unique in that it possesses unusual N- and C-terminal domains and in that its central sPLA2 domain is homologous to bee venom PLA2 rather than to other mammalian sPLA2s. To elucidate the in vivo actions of this atypical sPLA2, we generated transgenic (Tg) mice overexpressing human PLA2G3. Despite marked increases in PLA2 activity and mature 18-kDa PLA2G3 protein in the circulation and tissues, PLA2G3 Tg mice displayed no apparent abnormality up to 9 months of age. However, alterations in plasma lipoproteins were observed in PLA2G3 Tg mice compared with control mice. In vitro incubation of low density (LDL) and high density (HDL) lipoproteins with several sPLA2s showed that phosphatidylcholine was efficiently converted to lysophosphatidylcholine by PLA2G3 as well as by PLA2G5 and PLA2G10, to a lesser extent by PLA2G2F, and only minimally by PLA2G2A and PLA2G2E. PLA2G3-modified LDL, like PLA2G5- or PLA2G10-treated LDL, facilitated the formation of foam cells from macrophages ex vivo. Accumulation of PLA2G3 was detected in the atherosclerotic lesions of humans and apoE-deficient mice. Furthermore, following an atherogenic diet, aortic atherosclerotic lesions were more severe in PLA2G3 Tg mice than in control mice on the apoE-null background, in combination with elevated plasma lysophosphatidylcholine and thromboxane A2 levels. These results collectively suggest a potential functional link between PLA2G3 and atherosclerosis, as has recently been proposed for PLA2G5 and PLA2G10.

Within the secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) family, group X sPLA2 (sPLA2-X) has the highest capacity to hydrolyze cellular membranes and has long been thought to promote inflammation by releasing arachidonic acid, a precursor of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Unexpectedly, we found that transgenic mice globally overexpressing human sPLA2-X (PLA2G10-Tg) displayed striking immunosuppressive and lean phenotypes with lymphopenia and increased M2-like macrophages, accompanied by marked elevation of free ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and their metabolites. Studies using Pla2g10-deficient mice revealed that endogenous sPLA2-X, which is highly expressed in the colon epithelium and spermatozoa, mobilized ω3 PUFAs or their metabolites to protect against dextran sulfate-induced colitis and to promote fertilization, respectively. In colitis, sPLA2-X deficiency increased colorectal expression of Th17 cytokines, and ω3 PUFAs attenuated their production by lamina propria cells partly through the fatty acid receptor GPR120. In comparison, cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2α) protects from colitis by mobilizing ω6 arachidonic acid metabolites, including prostaglandin E2. Thus, our results underscore a previously unrecognized role of sPLA2-X as an ω3 PUFA mobilizer in vivo, segregated mobilization of ω3 and ω6 PUFA metabolites by sPLA2-X and cPLA2α, respectively, in protection against colitis, and the novel role of a particular sPLA2-X-driven PUFA in fertilization.

In contrast to the current belief that cholesterol reduction with statins decreases atherosclerosis, we present a perspective that statins may be causative in coronary artery calcification and can function as mitochondrial toxins that impair muscle function in the heart and blood vessels through the depletion of coenzyme Q10 and 'heme A', and thereby ATP generation. Statins inhibit the synthesis of vitamin K2, the cofactor for matrix Gla-protein activation, which in turn protects arteries from calcification. Statins inhibit the biosynthesis of selenium containing proteins, one of which is glutathione peroxidase serving to suppress peroxidative stress. An impairment of selenoprotein biosynthesis may be a factor in congestive heart failure, reminiscent of the dilated cardiomyopathies seen with selenium deficiency. Thus, the epidemic of heart failure and atherosclerosis that plagues the modern world may paradoxically be aggravated by the pervasive use of statin drugs. We propose that current statin treatment guidelines be critically reevaluated.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA), an analog of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), was previously identified in human serum. Although cPA possesses distinct physiological activities not elicited by LPA, its biochemical origins have scarcely been studied. In the present study, we assayed cPA formation from lysophosphatidylcholine in fetal bovine serum and found significant activity of transphosphatidylation that generated cPA. The cPA-producing enzyme was purified from fetal bovine serum using five chromatographic steps yielding a 100-kDa protein with cPA biosynthetic activity. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry of its tryptic peptides revealed that the enzyme shared identical fragments with human autotaxin, a serum lysophospholipase D that produces LPA. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the 100-kDa protein was specifically recognized by an anti-human autotaxin antibody. Moreover, recombinant rat autotaxin was found to generate cPA in addition to LPA. No significant cPA- or LPA-producing activity was detected in autotaxin-depleted serum from bovine or human prepared by immunoprecipitation with an anti-autotaxin monoclonal antibody. These results indicate that the generation of cPA and LPA in serum is mainly attributed to autotaxin.

Under various environmental stresses, the true slime mold Physarum polycephalum converts into dormant forms, such as microcysts, sclerotia, and spores, which can survive in adverse environments for a considerable period of time. In drought-induced sclerotia, actin is threonine phosphorylated, which blocks its ability to polymerize into filaments. It is known that fragmin and actin-fragmin kinase (AFK) mediate this phosphorylation event. In this work, we demonstrate that high levels of actin threonine phosphorylation are also found in other dormant cells, including microcysts and spores. As the threonine phosphorylation of actin in microcysts and sclerotia were induced by drought stress but not by other stresses, we suggest that drought stress is essential for actin phosphorylation in both cell types. Although characteristic filamentous actin structures (dot- or rod-like structures) were observed in microcysts, sclerotia, and spores, actin phosphorylation was not required for the formation of these structures. Prior to the formation of both microcysts and sclerotia, AFK mRNA expression was activated transiently, whereas fragmin mRNA levels decreased. Our results suggest that drought stress and AFK might be involved in the threonine phosphorylation of actin. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 2006. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA; 1-acyl-sn-glycerol-2,3-cyclic phosphate) is an analog of the growth factor-like phospholipid mediator lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). As brain tissue is the richest source of cPA we tested its effects on hippocampal neurons from day 16/17 embryonic rat cultured in a serum-free medium. Nanomolar concentrations of cPA elicited a neurotrophic effect and promoted neurite outgrowth that exceeded that of 50 ng/mL nerve growth factor (NGF). Pertussis toxin, the LPA1/LPA3 receptor-selective antagonist dioctylglycerol pyrophosphate, the myristoylated inhibitory pseudosubstrate peptide of protein kinase A (PKI), Wortmannin and PD98059 abolished the neurite-promoting effect. cPA elicited a sustained activation of extracellular signal-related kinases (ERK) 1/2 and Akt. Clostridium difficile toxin B, an inhibitor of the Rho family of GTPases, reduced cPA-induced enhancement of neurite outgrowth. In B5P cells, a clonal cell line of PC12 cells overexpressing tyrosine kinase NGF receptor (TrkA), cPA elicited transphosphorylation of TrkA. cPA-elicited ERK activation was blocked by K252a and PKI. These results suggest that cPA mimics the effects of, and activates signaling pathways similar to, the neurotrophin NGF in cultured embryonic hippocampal neurons and B5P cells.

The cytoprotective effect of heat shock proteins (HSPs) promises new therapeutic modalities for medical treatment. We examined the anti-ulcer effect of cholesteryl glucoside (1-O-cholesteryl-beta-D-glucopyranoside, CG) on cold-restraint stress-induced gastric ulcer in rats, in terms of its correlative ability to activate heat shock factor (HSF) and to induce HSP70. Rapid induction of CG occurred in animal tissues, especially in stomach, after exposure to stress, indicating that this glycolipid might act as an anti-stress, lipid mediator involved in the very early stages of stress-induced signal transduction. Orally administered CG apparently showed anti-ulcer activity in rats via HSF activation and HSP70 induction. When compared with geranylgeranylacetone (GGA), the well known as an effective, synthetic anti-ulcer agent, CG proved to have the same level of strength on ulcer inhibition. GGA caused CG and HSP70 induction in gastric mucosa, indicating that GGA induced HSP70 via CG production. CG thus might be useful for medical treatment of stress-induced diseases, and as an anti-stress supplement for daily diet.

Biochemical characteristics of brain microsomal membranes were examined before and after the brightness-discrimination learning tasks in rats that were fed either safflower oil (alpha-linolenate-deficient) or perilla oil (alpha-linolenate-sufficient) diets. We detected small changes in the chain elongation system for polyunsaturated fatty acids in microsomes, whereas no significant difference was detected in the inositol trisphosphate-induced calcium release and ATP-induced calcium uptake profiles of microsomes between the two dietary groups. The calcium ion-induced aggregation rate of microsomes was determined in both groups. We found that the aggregation rate of microsomes in the safflower oil group was significantly greater than that in the perilla oil group. The difference in susceptibility of microsomal membrane phospholipids to phospholipase A2 between the groups was obvious, and the amount of released fatty acids by phospholipase A2 from the perilla oil group microsomes was nearly half of that from the safflower oil group microsomes after the learning task. Susceptibility of sialic acids on the brain microsomal membranes to exogenous sialidase was different only after the learning task in the safflower and perilla oil groups. These results suggest that the biochemical characteristics of membrane surfaces of brain microsomes are affected significantly by the learning task itself in a dietary oil-dependent manner.

Ro09-0198 (Ro) is a tetracyclic peptide antibiotic that binds specifically to phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and causes cytolysis. To investigate the molecular basis of transbilayer movement of PE in biological membranes, we have isolated a series of budding yeast mutants that are hypersensitive to the Ro peptide. One of the most sensitive mutants, designated ros3 (Ro-sensitive 3), showed no significant change in the cellular phospholipid composition or in the sensitivity to amphotericin B, a sterol-binding polyene macrolide antibiotic. These results suggest that the mutation of ros3 affects the PE organization on the plasma membrane, rather than PE synthesis or overall organization of the membrane structures. By functional complementation screening, we identified the gene ROS3 affected in the mutant, and we showed that the hypersensitive phenotype was caused by the defective expression of the ROS3 gene product, Ros3p, an evolutionarily conserved protein with two putative transmembrane domains. Disruption of the ROS3 gene resulted in a marked decrease in the internalization of fluorescence-labeled analogs of PE and phosphatidylcholine, whereas the uptake of fluorescence-labeled phosphatidylserine and endocytic markers was not affected. Neither expression levels nor activities of ATP-binding cassette transporters of the ros3Delta cells differed from those of wild type cells, suggesting that Ros3p is not related to the multidrug resistance activities. Immunochemical analyses of the structure and subcellular localization showed that Ros3p was a glycosylated membrane protein localized in both the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum, and that a part of Ros3p was associated with the detergent-insoluble glycolipid-enriched complexes. These results indicate that Ros3p is a membrane glycoprotein that plays an important role in the phospholipid translocation across the plasma membrane.

Very little is known about the biophysical properties and the lipid or protein composition of membrane domains presumably present in endocytic and biosynthetic organelles. Here we analyzed the membrane composition of late endosomes by suborganellar fractionation in the absence of detergent. We found that the internal membranes of this multivesicular organelle can be separated from the limiting membrane and that each membrane population exhibited a defined composition. Our data also indicated that internal membranes may consist of at least two populations, containing primarily phosphatidylcholine or lysobisphosphatidic acid as major phospholipid, arguing for the existence of significant microheterogeneity within late endosomal membranes. We also found that lysobisphosphatidic acid exhibited unique pH-dependent fusogenic properties, and we speculated that this lipid is an ideal candidate to regulate the dynamic properties of this internal membrane mosaic.

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine 1-phosphate (Sph1P) production was examined in vitro under conditions that simulated blood clotting. Several approaches were utilized to elucidate the metabolic pathways. 1) Platelet phospholipids were labeled using [32P]orthophosphate, and the production of [32P]Sph1P and LPA was examined. Thrombin stimulation of platelets resulted in rapid secretion of Sph1P stored within the platelet. In contrast, LPA was neither stored within nor secreted from platelets. Nonetheless, extracellular levels of LPA gradually increased following stimulation. 2) Stable-isotope dilution mass spectrometry was used to quantify the molecular species of LPA generated from platelets in vitro. Only 10% of the LPA generated following thrombin stimulation was associated with platelets, the remaining 90% was contained within the extracellular medium. The acyl composition of LPA produced by platelets differed depending on the presence or absence of plasma in the incubation. 3) The fate of exogenously added fluorescent phospholipid analogs was determined. Incubation of [(7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)amino]dodecanoyl-(NBD)-labeled phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylserine with the supernatant fractions from thrombin-stimulated platelets yielded no LPA production. However, these lipids were converted to the corresponding lysolipids by released PLA1 and PLA2 activities. When incubated with plasma or serum the NBD-labeled lysophospholipids were readily converted to LPA. Inhibitors of lysophospholipase D and the biological activity of LPA were detected in plasma. These results suggest that the bulk of LPA produced through platelet activation results from the sequential cleavage of phospholipids to lysophospholipids by released phospholipases A1 and A2 and then to LPA by plasma lysophospholipase D.

A novel bioactive lipid, cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA), was identified in lipids bound to human serum albumin. A cPA fraction was extracted and purified from human serum albumin by use of a combination of preparative TLC and HPLC. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry of the purified fraction showed molecular ions corresponding to cPA, which was composed of some different fatty acid species. The most abundant component was identified as palmitoyl-cPA by tandem mass spectrometry using collision-induced dissociation. These data have established that cPA is a naturally occurring lipid bound to human serum albumin.