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In frogs, the loss of the free‐living tadpole stage implies deep transformations in morphology and development, and the result is a combination of traits exclusive to direct development with the reduction or absence of typically larval features. Two traits stand out in terraranans, a mostly Neotropical clade with ca. 1200 species known or suspected to have direct development: (1) the development of forelimbs, which unlike in tadpoles and in several unrelated direct‐developing lineages, in this clade is described to occur completely exposed during ontogeny, and (2) the reduction of gills and their physiological replacement by highly vascularized tails for gas exchange. In this contribution, we report unusual aspects of the embryonic ontogeny in the Confused Robber frog Oreobates berdemenos, which complicate the interpretation of morphological diversity in Terrarana and in direct‐developing frogs in general. First, forelimbs develop initially entirely concealed by a larval operculum. Second, tail fins develop dorsal and ventral to the tail muscular core but their arrangement changes to lateral during ontogeny. Third, the expansion of the tail fins appears to be a plastic character whose variation likely responds to individual conditions of humidity and/or oxygenation of each egg within the clutch. Finally, we report cells with the morphology of hatching gland cells in the rostral region of embryos at stages about to hatch. If not vestigial, these cells could assist the egg tooth, which is characteristic of terraranans, with chemical softening of the egg capsules during hatching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Molecular data suggest the existence of at least 83 undescribed species in the group. • For the first time, the composition group get a phylogenetic definition. • The group's diversification occurred mainly in northwestern South America. • Miocene mega-wetlands and highlands played a strong role in the group history. • The advance of deforestation threatens the undescribed diversity in the Amazonia. With more than 600 recognized species, the genus Pristimantis is already the most diverse among vertebrates, but described species only represent a fraction of the actual diversity in this clade. This genus is widely distributed throughout the Neotropics and represents an interesting model for biogeographic studies because Pristimantis spp. are direct developing and generally have narrow ecological niches and low dispersal abilities. The P. unistrigatus species group is one of the most important components in the genus (ca. 200 recognized species) and has been supported by morphological but not by molecular evidence. We assessed the species boundaries and distribution in the P. unistrigatus species group and infer spatiotemporal patterns of diversification related to historical landscape changes in the Neotropics. We gathered three mitochondrial, and two nuclear DNA loci from 416 specimens throughout the range of the group, and including 68 nominal species. We redefine the group based on the obtained phylogeny and found 151 candidate species that composes it, with 83 of these remaining undescribed. We recovered 11 major clades within the group that diverged before 13 Ma. The diversification of the group started during the early Miocene most likely in northwestern South America, currently corresponding to western Amazonia and northern Andes. The other neotropical areas subsequently acted as sinks, receiving lineages mostly during the last 10 Ma, after the demise of the Pebas System and the setup of the modern Amazonian hydrographic system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Eleutherodactylus subgenus Syrrhophus has a complex taxonomic history. For many years the species were classified into series and groups of species based on morphological and allozyme data. However, most of the species have conservative morphology, and their phylogenetic relationships have not been resolved. Furthermore, recent studies employing molecular tools have shown that Syrrhophus diversity is highly underestimated. Here, we present a near-complete phylogenetic hypothesis based on mitochondrial data (16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, and cytochrome b) and employing maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. The Bayesian tree has high support values (posterior probabilities ≥0.95) whereas the maximum likelihood hypothesis has generally low values (bootstrap support <70). Both phylogenetic analyses recovered Syrrhophus as monophyletic and composed of four main, allopatric clades (E. symingtoni clade, E. longipes clade, E. modestus clade, and E. nitidus clade) concordant with geography. Based on the molecular and morphological data, we describe a new species from the state of San Luis Potosí, Mexico. The new species is most closely related to E. campi and E. cystignathoides from which it has a genetic distance >7% in 16S rRNA. Finally, based on the phylogenetic results, we resurrect E. rubrimaculatus from synonymy. Our results increase the number of species in the subgenus Syrrhophus to 41. We highlight the importance of efforts to study this important component of Mexican biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Through the combination of morphological and phylogenetic evidence, we describe two species of Pristimantis from the upper basin of the Napo River. Both species have well-defined dorsolateral folds, a conical tubercle on the eyelid, a papilla on the tip of the snout, weakly expanded discs, and small size (female SVL < 28.2 mm). Pristimantis omarrhynchus sp. nov. differs from its sister species, Pristimantis miltongallardoi sp. nov., by the absence of iridophores on the belly, subacuminate snout in dorsal view, and narrow digits. Our phylogeny and morphological evidence, are conclusive in assigning them to the Pristimantis boulengeri species group, closely related to P. boulengeri, P cryptopictus, P. dorspictus, and P. brevifrons. The new species are the first reported for the P. boulengeri group in Ecuador and the Amazon basin. We also comment on the correct identity of GenBank sequences previously assigned to P thymelensis and P. myersi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Allopatric speciation has been posed as the main mechanism affecting amphibian diversification. In contrast, the role of alternative mechanisms such as ecological speciation has received less attention, and empirical evidence of this mechanism in shaping species richness gradients remains elusive in the tropics. Highly heterogeneous landscapes can favor both allopatric and ecological speciation either by producing physical barriers to dispersal or by inducing selective pressures on lineages distributed along environmental gradients (e.g., climatic gradients). Based on explicit predictions under the ecological speciation hypothesis, we tested whether the phylogeographic, acoustic, morphological, and climatic features differ across the range of Pristimantis viejas, a frog species distributed along a wide altitudinal gradient in the northern Andes of Colombia. In agreement with our predictions, we found two highly differentiated lineages within P. viejas, showing striking differences in molecular diversity, acoustic, and climatic distribution. Importantly, we found that variation of such characteristics is highly congruent with variation in elevational ranges of these two lineages (P. viejas distributed in the lowlands and a cryptic sister lineage distributed in the highlands), and our evidence suggest that the divergence of these lineages was influenced by temperature-related variables. These results support a temperature-driven speciation process which may influence the amphibian diversity patterns in tropical mountains. Last, we describe and name the new cryptic lineage distributed in the highlands. We highlight that an integrative framework in phylogeographic studies should not only focuses on the identification of hidden lineages and their associated processes but also, when multiple lines of evidence are available, it should conduct to their formal description as species are the units for multiple biodiversity disciplines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Diasporus is described from the lowlands of southwestern Colombia. The new species exhibits a yellowish coloration in life, a character that it shares with other three species in the genus-Diasporus citrinobapheus, D. gularis, and D. tigrillo. The new species differs from all other congeners in having two chrome orange spots (=glandlike protrusions) on sacral region, smooth ventral skin, basal webbing between the toes, and distal papillae at tips of disc covers on fingers II-IV and toes II-IV. Further, the new species differs from all congeners by an uncorrected p-distance of > 5.56% of the 16S rRNA gene fragment examined. In addition to the new species described herein, we demonstrated that the possession of a yellowish coloration in life optimizes unambiguously as a synapomorphy of a clade within Diasporus, which may be recognized as the Diasporus diastema species group. We also discussed the phylogenetic significance of two morphological characters previously considered of systematic value in Diasporus, the occurrence of oval palmar tubercles (undivided) and longitudinal folds (of the vocal sacs) on the throat. On this basis, we demonstrated that these characters appear to be symplesiomorphies rather than synapomorphies of Diasporus. Regarding pointed disc covers (ungual flap) present in some species of Diasporus, we show that this character conflates various characters, involving variation in pad shape, dorsal outline of the disc (ungual flap), and dependence between discs of different digits. Finally, considering that phenotypic data are a valuable source of evidence in testing phylogenetic hypotheses of terraranan frogs, we encourage future research to incorporate phenotypic evidence into phylogenetic studies involved in the genus Diasporus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a new species of Pristimantis from the Comunidad Río Blanco, Cordillera del Cóndor, Ecuador. Pristimantis ledzeppelin sp. nov. is characterized by a snout-vent length of 23.9-24.6 mm in adult males (n = 2) and 36.1 mm in one adult female and is compared morphologically with Pristimantis muscosus and other similar species of Pristimantis. The new species is characterized by having skin on dorsum and flanks finely tuberculate to tuberculate, a distinctive scapular fold, skin on venter coarsely areolate; snout rounded with a small rostral papilla; discs on the digits truncate, three times the width of the digits; groin and hidden surfaces of thighs yellowish-cream with distinctive brownish-black marks and/or orange irregular blotches; and coppery red iris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Serranía de los Paraguas is a mountainous region situated in the central part of the Cordillera Occidental of Colombia. It rises some 2500 m above the wet forest and supports a high concentration of species richness and endemism for plants and terrestrial vertebrates (amphibians, birds, and mammals). In the case of amphibians, 61 named species occurring in The Serranía de los Paraguas are recognized in the literature, which are mostly the works of J.D. Lynch and P. Ruíz-Carranza in the 1990s. During a 9-d survey in the wet season (19–27 July 2019) on the Reserva Natural Comunitaria Cerro El Inglés (one of the hills of the Serranía de los Paraguas) on the frontier between Chocó and Valle del Cauca departments, we discovered two new species of the genus Pristimantis. Both species share a divided palmar tubercle as well as a distinctive color pattern on the groin, of which both are distinctive within Pristimantis. The first new species is distinguished by its small size and having a distinctive carmine red color pattern on groin, uniform lateral fringes on fingers (no crenulated), palmar tubercle deeply bifid (or divided), advertisement call composed of a short single note distinctly pulsed, and absence of nuptial pads as well as hyperdistal tubercles, inner tarsal tubercle and fold, and partial fusion of Toe IV and V. The second new species is distinguished by having dermal ridges on scapular region, conical tubercle on upper eyelid and heel, palmar tubercle divided, differentiated tympanic membrane, males with vocal slits, orange spots on groin, advertisement call composed of distinctly pulsed 6–8 notes, and absence of dorsolateral folds as well as cranial crest, hyperdistal tubercles, and toe webbing. Considering these new species, the number of amphibians inhabiting the Serranía de los Paraguas has increased to 63 species. It is important to point out that within this outstanding species richness of amphibians, there are 10 endemic species and 17 threatened species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List (7 Critically Endangered, 5 Endangered, and 5 Vulnerable). Likewise, it is noteworthy that 29 terraranan species can be found in the Reserva Natural Comunitaria Cerro El Inglés. Thus, based on the species richness, endemism, diversity at higher taxonomic levels, and the number of threatened species, it seems reasonable to say that the Serranía de los Paraguas is a priority site for conservation of amphibians in Colombia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of frog, Eleutherodactylus geitonos sp. nov., is described from the southeastern slope of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. The new frog is closely related to E. haitianus and both species share a small size. They differ in some morphological proportions and other external features, coloration, advertisement calls and DNA sequences of the 16S rRNA gene. Morphological and bioacoustic comparisons with other species in the E. abbotti species group are also provided. Our preliminary genetic data suggest that the taxonomic status of E. neodreptus (a synonym of E. audanti) and E. melatrigonum need to be re-evaluated.

A new phylogeny for the Pristimantis lacrimosus species group is presented, its species content reviewed, and three new species described from the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes. Our phylogeny includes, for the first time, samples of P. aureolineatus, P. bromeliaceus, and P. lacrimosus. The morphology of hyperdistal subarticular tubercles is also assessed among 21 species of Pristimantis. The P. lacrimosus species group is composed of 36 species distributed in the Chocó, Guiana, and Amazon regions of tropical South America with a single species reaching Central America. Ancestral area reconstruction indicates that, despite its high diversity in the Amazon region, the P. lacrimosus group originated in the Pacific basin, Chocó region of Ecuador and Colombia. Pristimantis amaguanae sp. nov. is most closely related to P. bromeliaceus. It differs from P. bromeliaceus by being smaller, having transversal dark bands in the hindlimbs (absent or faint in P. bromeliaceus) and the absence of discoidal fold (present in P. bromeliaceus). Pristimantis nankints sp. nov. and P. romeroae sp. nov. are part of a clade of predominantly light-green frogs that includes P. acuminatus, P. enigmaticus, P. limoncochensis, and P. omeviridis. Pristimantis nankints sp. nov. and P. romeroae sp. nov. can be distinguished from all of them by the presence of a dark dorsolateral stripe that borders a light green band on a green background. Hyperdistal tubercles are present in all examined species of the P. lacrimosus species group and its sister clade. Species with hyperdistal tubercles are characterized by having relatively long terminal phalanges and narrow T-shaped expansion at the end of the terminal phalange. We discuss the phylogenetic distribution of these characters and their potential diagnostic significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We describe a new species of Pristimantis from one of the most isolated regions of Colombia, at elevations of 700–800 m in the Tame River basin at the eastern slope of the Cordillera Oriental in Colombia (Department of Arauca). This locality has been in the grasp of guerrilla groups and right-wing paramilitaries, and as a consequence, this region has been historically inaccessible or risky for researchers. The new species is a diurnal forest dweller, similar to Pristimantis savagei and P. vilarsi. It is distinguished from its congeners by having finely shagreened dorsum skin, areolate ventral skin, moderate tympanic membrane size (length = 37.2–58.8% of eye length), long hind limbs (tibia length = 53.6–63.6% of snout–vent length), and an advertisement call composed of a short single note, while lacking ridges on scapula, tubercles on upper eyelid and heel, and basal webbing in toes. In addition to the new species described herein, we demonstrate that subarticular tubercles display more variation than what is commonly described in taxonomic studies of terraranan frogs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pristimantis bacchus is an endangered terrestrial frog, endemic to cloud forests of the northern part of the Cordillera Oriental in the Colombian Andes. The knowledge of its reproductive biology and microhabitat use can offer important information for future conservation programs. We evaluated the reproductive activity and microhabitat use for both sexes, and selection of calling sites by males during rainy and dry seasons. Individuals of all reproductive conditions were observed throughout the sampled months; however, we observed a higher abundance of frogs during the first rainy season, after the driest months of the year. Thus, this population seems to have continuous reproductive activity, with an apparent peak at the onset of the first rainy season of the year. There were differences in the microhabitat use between sexes, between adults and juveniles, and between non-reproductive and reproductive females. Males use a wider variety of substrates at higher perches, while females were mainly found on leaf litter and over leaves at low heights; however, ovigerous females mostly occupied substrates above 120 cm. Juveniles were less abundant than adults, and occupy low substrates, mostly at forest litter. Two selection models evaluated the preference for calling sites, related to physiological requirements of humidity and for vocal sound dispersion. Males preferred to vocalize on perches at heights among 41-120 cm and with a vegetal structure that maintains high humidity, avoiding desiccation, and reducing exposure to predators. Therefore, intrapopulation variation in microhabitat use in this species is related to age, sex, reproductive condition, and physiological requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the mitogenomes for five species of the Ischnocnema guentheri series, being the first described for this genus of brachycephalid frogs. We assembled mitogenomes from anchored hybrid enrichment data and recovered the 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and two rRNA genes for all species. The general structure agrees with most previously sequenced neobatrachians, with two exceptions: the origin of replication of L-strand (OL) was found between tRNA-A and tRNA-N, and the position of tRNA-L and tRNA-T, which are dispersed in the control region. We provide a phylogenetic tree with outgroups, which is consistent with previous phylogenetic hypotheses.

In this paper we extend the known distribution of the endemic and recently described Pristimantis tinguichaca Brito et al., 2016, a terrestrial robber frog characterized by its beige and brown to dark-brown dorsal coloration, flanks with longitudinal or diagonal cream-coloured bands which are separated by brown, and reddish iris. The new records, based on two specimens collected from the Cerro Candelaria and Cerro Mayordomo reserves of Fundación Ecominga in the upper Pastaza River watershed, Tungurahua province, east-central Ecuador, represent the northern limit of the species and extend this species to the Llanganates--Sangay ecological corridor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a new species of Pristimantis from the montane forest of the Río Zuñag Ecological Reserve, upper basin of the Pastaza River, Ecuador. Pristimantis mallii sp. n. is characterized by a snout-vent length of 11.6-21.3 mm in adult males (n = 12), 22.6-34.3 mm in adult females (n = 8), and is compared morphologically and genetically with Pristimantis miktos and with other relevant species of Pristimantis. The new species is characterized by having skin on dorsum and flanks shagreen, distinctive scapular folds, snout broadly rounded in dorsal view, upper eyelid bearing one or two subconical tubercles and some rounded tubercles, dorsum and flanks light brown to brown, with irregular dark brown marks bounded by dirty cream and groin with irregular yellowish marks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe two new species of Pristimantis from southwestern Colombia. The first new species inhabits the humid Pacific slopes of the Cordillera Occidental, Valle del Cauca; it is most similar to three allopatric Ecuadorian species—P. eugeniae (Lynch and Duellman 1997), P. nyctophylax (Lynch 1976), and P. subsigillatus (Boulenger 1902). It is distinguished, however, by having subarticular tubercles beneath the joint between distal phalanges, basal webbing on outer edge of toe IV, papilla at the tip of snout, and uniform cream-brown coloration on the anterior surfaces of thighs and in the groin. The second new species inhabits the high mountains of the Cordillera Central, Cauca, and it is most similar to P. boulengeri (Lynch 1981) and two Peruvian species—P. deyiLehr et al. 2013 and P. schultei (Duellman 1990). However, it differs by having subarticular tubercles beneath the joint between distal phalanges, dorsal skin with low warts, papilla at the tip of snout, and by lacking tympanic membranes, dentigerous processes of the vomer, and vocal slits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Craugastor (Anura: Craugastoridae) from the montane rainforest of the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. A new dirt frog of the Craugastor podiciferus Species Group is described from Costa Rica; it is restricted to elevations between 2330 and 2700 m a.s.l. in the montane rainforest of the Cordillera de Talamanca. Analysis of DNA sequences of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA (16S) and cytochrome oxidase I (COI) genes reveals a distinct lineage within the C. podiciferus Species Group. Additional morphological and morphometric analyses support the distinctiveness of this lineage that is described as a new species herein. The species is distinguished from other members of the C. podiciferus Species Group by its unique coloration: a violet-brown to blackish brown venter with white pigment forming blotches, and dark brown palmar surfaces with prominent white folds between subarticular tubercles in the adults. The genetic divergence of the species from other members of the C. podiciferus Species Group is signifcant (higher than 9.2% in 16S and 13.3% in COI). Although not closely related, it resembles C. podiciferus morphologically, a species that also inhabits montane rainforest. The discovery of this new species highlights the importance of montane rainforest as a center of species richness and endemism.

The frog Pristimantis marmoratus was originally described as Hylodes marmoratus by George A. Boulenger in 1900 based on a single specimen reported to have been collected at the foot of Mount Roraima in Guyana in 1898. We herein discuss the exact location of the type locality of P. marmoratus and provide a redescription of the species based on new material from Kaieteur National Park and from the slopes of Maringma-tepui in Guyana. We also describe the previously unknown vocalization and breeding ecology of the species, and conducted an exploratory molecular analysis of the phylogenetic relationships within the genus Pristimantis represented by the members of the “unistrigatus species group” in the Guiana Shield. Pristimantis marmoratus is a small-sized species mainly distinguished from its known Guiana Shield congeners by the combination of F I < II, SVL ≤ 20.4 in males, presence of vocal slits in males, granular/pustulate dorsal skin with well-developed scapular ridges, basal webbing between fingers, fringes on fingers and toes, crossed iris, diffuse yellow or pale green wash on groin, and absence of flashy colour on axillary/pre-axillary region. The advertisement call consists of a single note repeated at a rate of ca 11 calls/min with a dominant frequency ranging from 2756 to 3101 Hz. Pristimantis marmoratus is primarily arboreal, exclusively active at dusk, and probably restricted to the pristine rainforests of the Pantepui uplands and highlands, east of the Gran Sabana between ca 600 and 1800 m above sea level. Preliminary molecular analyses recovered Pristimantis marmoratus as sister to an unnamed species from the Eastern Guiana Shield. On grounds of the newly established distributional extent we suggest maintaining the IUCN conservation status as Least Concern.

Two species of Pristimantis are known to exist in the Cerrado Biome, P. dundeei and P. ventrigranulous. Here we report on new localities for P. dundeei that extend its known distribution and present new data on its call and habitat. The new data are from Santo Antônio do Leverger, Barra do Garças and Pontal do Araguaia (MT). Calls were noticeably pulsed to the human ear, with 2-12 similar notes released at a rate of 16-21/s. Calls lasted from 136 to 642 ms, with frequency peaks at 3937-4125 kHz. We found three emphasized frequency bands that were not harmonically related one each other, the second being the dominant one. Males called from a wide range of habitats, from bushes or trees, from open areas or inside forests. Our data from Barra do Garças extend the distribution of P. dundeei up to 380 km to east, which place it in close range to P. ventrigranulous. With regard to characteristics of their call and morphology, these two species cannot be distinguished by any feature. Further studies that consider their genetic distance would be decisive to an eventual synonymization of the two species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a new phylogenetic hypothesis for Ischnocnema , a Neotropical brachycephaloid genus of ground-dwelling direct-developing frogs. We performed Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood, and maximum parsimony analyses using two nuclear ( RAG1 and Tyr ) and three mitochondrial genes (12S rRNA, tRNA-Val, and 16S rRNA) in a matrix comprising more than 80% of the described species. We recover Ischnocnema nanahallux outside the Ischnocnema parva series, and it is now unassigned to any species series, nor are Ischnocnema manezinho and Ischnocnema sambaqui. We propose the Ischnocnema venancioi species series to comprise Ischnocnema venancioi , Ischnocnema hoehnei , and two new species described herein ( Ischnocnema parnaso sp. nov. and Ischnocnema colibri sp. nov.). Furthermore, we designate a lectotype for I. venancioi . The nuptial pad present in males is an important character in the genus, and having a large, conspicuous, and glandular-appearing nuptial pad seems to be a synapomorphy for the clade composed of the I. parva , Ischnocnema guentheri , and the newly proposed I. venancioi series. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Pristimantis is described from the highland paramos on the eastern slopes of the Cajas Massif, southern Andes of Ecuador, at 3400 m. This new species is characterized by having a distinctive reddish color, cutaneous macroglands in suprascapular region and surfaces of arm and legs, and by lacking dentigerous processes of vomers. The cutaneous macroglands are similar to those exhibited by several species of the Pristimantis orcesi group, and may suggest a close phylogenetic relationship. The new species could be a latitudinal substitution of Pristimantis orcesi in the southern Andes of Ecuador. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a new species of small strabomantid frog (genus Psychrophrynella) from a humid montane forest in the Peruvian Department of Puno. Specimens were collected at 2,225 m a.s.l. in the leaf litter of primary montane forest near Thiuni, along theMacusani-San Gabán road, in the province of Carabaya. The new species is assigned to Psychrophrynella on the basis of morphological similarity, including presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the tarsus, and call composed of multiple notes. We also include genetic distances for 16S rRNA partial sequences between the new species and other strabomantid frogs. The species with lowest genetic distances are Psychrophrynella chirihampatu and Psychrophrynella usurpator. Psychrophrynella glauca sp. n. is readily distinguished from the three other species of Psychrophrynella (Psychrophrynella bagrecito, P. chirihampatu, and P. usurpator) by its small size, and by having belly and ventral surfaces of legs reddish-brown or red, and chest and throat brown to dark brown with a profusion of bluish-gray flecks. The new species is only known from its type locality. With the discovery of P. glauca, the geographic distribution of Psychrophrynella is extended to the Department of Puno, where it was no longer represented after the description of the genus Microkayla. Furthermore, the Cordillera de Carabaya is the only mountain range known to be home to four of the seven genera of Holoadeninae (Bryophryne, Microkayla, Noblella, and Psychrophrynella), suggesting an intriguing evolutionary history for this group in southern Peru. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe a new species of Bryophryne from the Cordillera de Vilcabamba in Department Cusco, in the southeastern Peruvian Andes. The new species differs from all other congeneric taxa, except B. flammiventris and B. gymnotis, by possessing a weakly defined tympanic membrane and tympanic annulus, by the presence of vocal sac and vocal slits in males, and by producing advertisement calls. The new species is distinguished from B. flammiventris and B. gymnotis by skin texture, presence of small, oblique dentigerous processes on the vomer, ventral coloration ranging from bluish-gray to whitish-gray with irregular or reticulate dark brown spots, and call composed of two or three notes. The new species is further characterized by having dorsal skin shagreen with tubercles, discontinuous dorsolateral folds, skin smooth on ventral surfaces of the body, and lateral fringes on fingers and toes. This species was found at the transition from montane forest to high Andean puna, where it occurs in moist microhabitats under moss and rocks at elevations from 3519 to 3707 m a.s.l.

Ischnocnema parva is a small species that occurs in the leaf litter within the Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil. The advertisement call of this species was described in the early 90's based on an undefined number of males from Estação Biológica da Boracéia in the municipality of Salesópolis, state of São Paulo. In this study, based on data from four localities in two Brazilian states, we re-describe the advertisement call of I. parva which consists of a single type of pulsed note emitted sporadically with its fundamental frequency peaking at about 2000 Hz and its dominant frequency peaking at about 4000 Hz. The calls of males from two localities have a higher pulse rate and longer interpulse interval. Compared to our data, the call previously described in literature has a higher pulse rate and lower dominant frequency. In addition, we interpret that the species call has a harmonic structure and a distinct amplitude modulation from the previously reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct development has evolved independently several times in anurans and direct-developing species are characterized by large-scale developmental repatterning and a complete, or near complete, absence of most tadpole-specific structures. Earlier studies stressed the similarities among different direct-developing species, but more recent studies have indicated differences in the reduction of tadpole-specific structures among different taxa. Here, we describe egg deposition, clutch characteristics and embryonic development of the direct-developing squeaker frogs of the genus Arthroleptis, providing the first detailed description of direct development in Arthroleptidae. Embryonic development in Arthroleptis is characterized by the presence of an opercular fold that still encloses the developing forelimbs, the absence of external gills and an only moderately extended tail. A comparison with published information on other direct-developing anurans reveals broad dissimilarities in the formation of an opercular fold and very different tail morphology among different taxa. An egg tooth, often considered characteristic of direct-developing anurans, seems to be restricted to New World Terrarana. The embryonic diversity seen in direct-developing anuran taxa argues against simplistic assumptions about the evolution of direct development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study a new species of Pristimantis (Anura: Craugastoridae) of the P. conspicillatus species group is described. Pristimantis latro sp. n. is known only from the municipalities of Altamira, Anapu, Brasil Novo, Medicilândia, Uruará and Aveiro (Flona Tapajós, right bank of Tapajós river), in Pará state, Brazil. Morphologically, the new species distinguishes from known congeners in the group mainly by the presence of dorsal tubercles and absence of discoidal folds, smooth belly skin, as well as the presence of supernumerary tubercles on hands. The call of the new species consists of seven ascending notes, the first of which has a dominant frequency of 2635 Hz and the last 3272 Hz. Molecular analysis of the 16S mtDNA indicates a genetic distance of 8% to P. chiastonotus, its closet relative, and between 9% and 11% to populations of P. fenestratus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pristimantis uisae is a poorly known frog species reported only from three nearby localities in the western slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia (Boyacá and Santander Departments). In this work, 12 new records for this species are provided, including the first published records of this species for Cundinamarca Department and from the Eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental. Additionally, the new localities reported herein increase its known elevation range to 2300-3050 m. Further studies are needed for having a better understanding of the distribution of Pristimantis uisae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pristimantis carranguerorum (Lynch, 1994) is a poorly-known species of frog, endemic to the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia, which is known only from a few localities in the Boyacá and Casanare departments. Herein, we provide the first records of this species from Cundinamarca Department; these are the southernmost and highest altitude records for this species. We summarize the distribution of this species based on all known records and including additional unreported localities from Boyacá and Cundinamarca departments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mitochondrial genome of Brachycephalus brunneus was determined by next-generation sequencing of mitochondrial DNA. Without its control region, it has a total length of 15,485 bp, consisting of 37 genes: 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes. Except for eight tRNAs and the nd6 gene, all other mitochondrial genes are encoded on the heavy strand. ATG and ATC act mainly as the initial codon in 10 protein-coding genes, whereas nd2 and cox1 use ATT and nad3 uses ATA. Gene order is generally consistent with that observed in closely-related families. The cloverleaf structures for trnS1 and trnC lacked the DHU-stem and DHU-loop, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses of mitogenomes of closely-related families indicate that Brachycephalidae is more closely-related to Craugastoridae than to Eleutherodactylidae. This is the first sequenced mitochondrial genome for the entire Brachycephalidae and can provide the basis for the development of mitochondrial markers for other members of the family, including many species that are critically endangered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two new colourful species of direct-developing frogs of the genus Pristimantis are described from the summit of two isolated tepuis (sandstone table mountains) in the Eastern Pantepui District of the Guiana Shield highlands. Pristimantis jamescameroni sp. nov. is described from the summit of Aprada-tepui from 2557-2571 m elevation, and P. imthurni sp. nov. is described from the summit of Ptari-tepui at 2471 m elevation. Both species share the absence of a differentiated tympanic membrane and external tympanic annulus (but presence of tiny pharyngeal ostia), the presence of nuptial pads in males, and the presence of lateral fringes on fingers and toes, a combination of characters that immediately distinguishes them from all other known Pantepui congeners. The two new species are morphologically similar to each other and are phylogenetically closely related, but they can be distinguished based on colour pattern and morphological characters such as head proportions, dorsal skin texture, and condition of the supratympanic fold. The IUCN conservation status of the new species is considered as Endangered (EN) owing to their apparent very restricted ranges. The number of described Pristimantis species occurring exclusively on tepui (and faunistically related granitic mountains) summits and upper slopes now reaches eleven.

We describe two new species of terrestrial frogs of the genus Pristimantis from the cloud forest of the Reserva Río Zuñag, located on the slopes of the Cordillera de los Sacha Llanganatis, buffer zone of the Llanganates National Park, on the eastern slopes of the central Andes of Ecuador. The first species differs from its congeners by presenting a distinctive brown colouration and hidden surfaces of posterior limb and groin black. The second is the only species of Pristimantis in the region characterized by the presence of a dermal occipital “W” crest, a distinctive pale-shaped inverted “V” mark, and hidden surfaces of groin and posterior limb reddish.

A new miniaturized toadled of the genus Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae) is described from Serra do Quiriri in the municipality of Campo Alegre, Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Specimens were collected from the leaf litter between from 1,263 and 1,318 m above sea level. The new species is distinguished from all its congeners by the combination of the following characters: snout–vent length 9.9–13.1 mm; skin on head and dorsum without dermal co-ossification; snout mucronate in dorsal view; dorsum rugose; general color brown, with a narrow orange vertebral stripe. The region where the new species is located is also shared with other endemic anuran species and has experienced strong anthropogenic impacts,suggesting that immediate actions should be taken to ensure their long-term preservation.

Brachycephalus (Anura: Brachycephalidae) is a remarkable genus of miniaturized frogs of the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest. Many of its species are highly endemic to cloud forests, being found only on one or a few mountaintops. Such level of microendemism might be caused by their climatic tolerance to a narrow set of environmental conditions found only in montane regions. This restriction severely limits the chance of discovery of new species, given the difficulty of exploring these inaccessible habitats. Following extensive fieldwork in montane areas of the southern portion of the Atlantic Rainforest, in this study we describe seven new species of Brachycephalus from the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. These species can be distinguished from one another based on coloration and the level of rugosity of the skin in different parts of their body. These discoveries increase considerably the number of described species of Brachycephalus in southern Brazil.

We describe two new species of frogs of the genus Pristimantis from the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, at Parque Nacional Llanganates. The new species are characterized by the spiny appearance typical of several species inhabiting montane forests. Pristimantis yanezi sp. n. is most similar to P. colonensis and P. incanus but differs from both in groin coloration and by having smaller tubercles on the upper eyelids, heels, and tarsus. Pristimantis llanganati sp. n. is most similar to P. eriphus and P. chloronotus. It can be distinguished from P. eriphus by the color pattern on the scapular region and by having smaller conical tubercles on the dorsum. Pristimantis chloronotus differs from P. llanganati sp. n. in having a pair of sinuous paravertebral folds. Both new species occur in a region with few amphibian collections and nothing is known about their abundance and ecology. Therefore, it is recommended to assign them to the Data Deficient Red List category. Updated figures of species richness of Pristimantis among biogeographic regions in Ecuador are also presented. Pristimantis reach their highest diversity in Montane Forests of the eastern versant of the Andes. Its species richness across regions cannot be explained by regional area, elevation, temperature, or precipitation. Political endemism in Pristimantis is higher than that of other terrestrial vertebrates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Pristimantis is described from an Andean cloud forest at 2650 m in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. Pristimantis dorado sp. nov. is similar to and could be closely related to P. acutirostris, but can be readily distinguished from this latter species by the absence of a tympanic annulus, vocal slits, vocal sac and reticulations on concealed surfaces, and by having a metallic gold iris with a brown horizontal streak. The phylogenetic position of the new species is recovered and we provide its advertisement call, which this species manages to emit despite lacking a vocal sac and vocal slits. This discovery reminds us that despite the extensive research on the alpha-taxonomy of Pristimantis in Colombia, fieldwork in high montane forests continues to yield previously unknown species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural history and behavioral information for species of the genus Pristimantis is scarce. We conducted an extensive study of Pristimantis eremitus, a vulnerable species for which there is scant biological information. We monitored 17 individuals for movements and intraspecific interactions for 13 mo. We describe the species' variation in dorsal color and pattern, which we used to uniquely identify individuals during the study. We also present results on the habitat utilization and home range of this species, providing evidence that this species shows a preference toward the bromeliad microhabitat when compared with other microhabitat types. We also describe the advertisement call and associated behaviors of the species. We update the known distribution of the species. Our data provide a baseline for future researchers to survey and identify individuals of P. eremitus, and which could be applied comparatively to other species where little of their natural history is known. We also show how an in-depth in situ study can provide useful information for species conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new species of Pristimantis is described from an Andean cloud forest at 2650 m in the Cordillera Oriental of Colombia. Pristimantis dorado sp. nov. is similar to and could be closely related to P. acutirostris, but can be readily distinguished from this latter species by the absence of a tympanic annulus, vocal slits, vocal sac and reticulations on concealed surfaces, and by having a metallic gold iris with a brown horizontal streak. The phylogenetic position of the new species is recovered and we provide its advertisement call, which this species manages to emit despite lacking a vocal sac and vocal slits. This discovery reminds us that despite the extensive research on the alpha-taxonomy of Pristimantis in Colombia, fieldwork in high montane forests continues to yield previously unknown species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the mitogenomes for five species of the Ischnocnema guentheri series, being the first described for this genus of brachycephalid frogs. We assembled mitogenomes from anchored hybrid enrichment data and recovered the 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and two rRNA genes for all species. The general structure agrees with most previously sequenced neobatrachians, with two exceptions: the origin of replication of L-strand (OL) was found between tRNA-A and tRNA-N, and the position of tRNA-L and tRNA-T, which are dispersed in the control region. We provide a phylogenetic tree with outgroups, which is consistent with previous phylogenetic hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe three new species of terrestrial frogs Pristimantis from the evergreen montane forests surrounding the Tungurahua Volcano in the Upper Pastaza River Basin, eastern foothills of Ecuador.The first species is distinguished by the distinctive shape of its digits (elongated, narrow and only slightly wider than finger discs); the second presents cranial crest and body size smaller than 31 mm; and the third is spiny and exhibits a distinctive pattern with red-wine finely delineated by cream.

We describe a new species of spiny green frog of the genus Pristimantis diagnosed by having tympanum, cranial crest, large conical tubercles on the posterior and anterior limbs, and by its uniform cream ventral coloration. Bioacoustics information about the warning and courtship calls and detailed comparisons of the new species with similar species from the Andes of Ecuador are provided. The new species is part of a particular ecotype of about 12 species of terrestrial frogs from montane forests in Ecuador grouped into at least four Pristimantis paraphyletic groups. The condition of frontoparietal cranial crest with high edges suggests a close relationship of the new species with the P devillei species group.

We describe two new species of Pristimantis from the cloud forest and paramo highlands protected by the Reserva Municipal Tinajillas-Gualaceño, province of Morona-Santiago, southeast versant of the Andes of Ecuador. The first species inhabits cloud forests at 2250 m and its diagnosed by the presence of spatulated digital discs and dark brown coloration (males with orange groin). The second species inhabits paramo highlands at 3200 m and exhibits a distinctive inguinal coloration with black marks on yellow background, a subconical tubercle on the snout and tympanum present.

Climate often regulates different aspects of the life cycle and activity of amphibians. Climatic seasonality may impose severe restrictions on breeding patterns of direct-developing terraranan frogs. We studied the influence of abiotic cues on calling activity of males of the direct-developing frog Oreobates discoidalis in the Yungas forests of north-western Argentina. Vocalization activity and daily emission pattern of the vocal repertoire were registered with a frog-logger, and climatic variables were registered with a data logger. We sampled two reproductive seasons from 2010 to 2011. We used ordinal logistic regression to evaluate the relationship between independent climatic variables and the intensity of calling activity. The calling season of males of O. discoidalis was triggered by the first rainfall of the aestival season. The species could be defined as crepuscular-nocturnal with a calling activity peak at dusk. Sporadic calling activity during day time was associated with conditions of high humidity and rainfall. Both the emission and the intensity of the advertisement call activity were influenced by time of the day, high levels of relative air humidity and presence of rainfall; air temperature was not a determinant factor in the calling activity of this frog species. Territorial calls were strongly associated with full chorus activity that could be associated with a mechanism of inter-male spacing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The geology of the northern Andean region has driven the evolutionary history of Neotropical fauna through the creation of barriers and connections that have resulted in speciation and dispersal events, respectively. One of the most conspicuous groups of anuran fauna in the Andes and surrounding areas is the direct-developing species of the genus Pristimantis. We investigated the molecular phylogenetic placement of 12 species from the montane Andes of Colombia in a broader geographical context with a new genus-level phylogeny in order to identify the role of Andean orogeny over the last 40 million years and the effect of elevational differences in diversification of Pristimantis . We examined the biogeographic history of the genus using ancestral range reconstruction by biogeographic regions and elevational ranges. We recognized the middle elevational band (between 1000 and 3000 m) in the Northwestern Andes region of Colombia and Ecuador as a focal point for the origin and radiation of Pristimantis species. Additionally, we found several Andean migrations toward new habitats in Central Andes and Merida Andes for some species groups. We suggest that the paleogeological changes in the Northwestern Andes were the main promoter of speciation in Pristimantis , and may have served as a corridor for the dispersion of lowland species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]