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Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the major diseases of our times. Besides being a considerable inconvenience for the patient, the associated healthcare expenses are tremendous. One of the cornerstones of T2DM prevention is a healthy diet, including a variety of fruits and vegetables. Apples are touted to have health benefits, and the apple polyphenol, phloridzin, has gained interest in recent years as it can reduce intestinal sugar uptake by inhibition of the Na/glucose cotransporter 1. By researching the amount of phloridzin in different food sources and linking them to their consumption data, we could estimate the average and high-level phloridzin consumption in Europe. On average, European people consume 0·7-7·5 mg/d phloridzin, the main contributors being apples and apple juice. High-level consumers may get up to 52 mg/d of phloridzin. Older people are more at risk of developing T2DM, yet they consume less phloridzin than adolescents and adults, as determined by our survey. Management of blood glucose levels might be improved by the consumption of phloridzin, as has been shown in recent clinical trials; these trials used phloridzin-enriched apple extract at doses exceeding those from normal food consumption. There are, however, indications that consumption of average to high levels of phloridzin via food might also contribute to reduced sugar load and a reduction in T2DM risk.

Data on current use levels of E950 acesulfame K, E952 cyclamic acid and its Na and Ca salts, E954 saccharin and its Na, K and Ca salts, E955 sucralose and E957 thaumatin, have been collected by the European food and drink industry in response to an EFSA call for data in support of its upcoming review of low/no calorie sweeteners (LNCSs). Careful evaluation of these data is necessary to allow for reasonably realistic estimations of consumer intake. Consumer patterns of product use and in particular of "niche" products, which are not likely to represent general LNCS exposure, are important to consider. Market survey data can identify food categories where the frequency of use of a given LNCS is so low as to represent a niche use of the product. The subsequent incorporation of information about these niche products can provide a relevant improvement in obtaining realistic exposure calculations. Using this approach, estimates of exposure are found to be comparable with previously published papers on intake and show levels generally below current ADIs, for most population groups.

Reliable estimation of intake of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) from tabletop sweetener products (TTS) is complex. Some TTS contain more than one type of NNS and more importantly, there can be considerable formula variation between different types of TTS products; that is liquid, powder and tablet products. A survey of use levels (mg NNS/kg TTS retail product) confirmed wide variations and reflected major differences in the portion size, or mass, typically used to deliver a sweetness equivalent to around one teaspoon (tsp) of sugar. This paper reviews current intake estimation models and reveals that these models may result in inappropriate intake estimations, probably because some surveys did not discriminate between powder, tablet and liquid forms. The data suggest that using upper percentile consumption figures for powdered forms is a critical factor in intake estimations and may be a more realistic method by which overall exposure estimates could be obtained.

Consumer exposure assessments for food additives are incomplete without information about the proportions of foods in each authorised category that contain the additive. Such information has been difficult to obtain but the Mintel Global New Products Database (GNPD) provides information about product launches across Europe over the past 20 years. These data can be searched to identify products with specific additives listed on product labels and the numbers compared with total product launches for food and drink categories in the same database to determine the frequency of occurrence. There are uncertainties associated with the data but these can be managed by adopting a cautious and conservative approach. GNPD data can be mapped with authorised food categories and with food descriptions used in the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Surveys Database for exposure modelling. The data, when presented as percent occurrence, could be incorporated into the EFSA ANS Panel's 'brand-loyal/non-brand loyal exposure model in a quantitative way. Case studies of preservative, antioxidant, colour and sweetener additives showed that the impact of including occurrence data is greatest in the non-brand loyal scenario. Recommendations for future research include identifying occurrence data for alcoholic beverages, linking regulatory food codes, FoodEx and GNPD product descriptions, developing the use of occurrence data for carry-over foods and improving understanding of brand loyalty in consumer exposure models.

Background: Intakes of glutamate can be derived from its natural occurrence as a constituent of proteins, from the presence of free glutamate in certain fermented foods, and from the addition of glutamic acid and glutamates to foods as flavor-enhancing additives., Summary: Intakes of glutamate following hydrolysis of dietary proteins can be as high as 440 mg/kg bw/day for toddlers and small children. High-level intakes of glutamate from its natural occurrence  in foods or from the use of food additives, given very conservative assumptions about conditions of use, are -similar at around 80 mg/kg bw/day for toddlers and small children. Key Messages: The use of glutamic acid and glutamates as food additives makes a marginal contribution to total intakes of glutamate from all sources., (© 2018 The Author(s) Published by S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The 2018 Dietary Glutamate Workshop was organized and sponsored by the International Glutamate Technical Committee to provide a platform for a broad expert discussion on all relevant aspects of glutamate metabolism and safety in human nutrition. The participants reached a consensus with previous safety evaluations conducted by the global expert bodies, but contradicted the 2017 re-evaluation of dietary glutamates by the European Food Safety Authority, which proposed a group acceptable daily intake (ADI) of 30 mg/kg body weight per day. The participants of the Workshop concluded that the present knowledge on metabolism, kinetics, developmental and general toxicity of dietary glutamates did not warrant a change in the previous ADI of "not specified.", (© 2018 The Author(s) Published by S. Karger AG, Basel.)

The European Food Safety Authority's 2010 scientific opinion on dietary reference values for total water intakes was partly based on observed intakes in population groups. Large variability was observed, and it is unlikely that these differences can be explained by differences in climate, activity level and/or culture. This suggests that there are uncertainties in the methodologies used to assess water intake from food and fluids, including all types of beverages. To determine current methods for recording and reporting total water, beverages and fluid intakes, twenty-one European countries were surveyed using an electronic questionnaire. In total, twelve countries responded and ten completed surveys were summarised. Countries reported that their survey was representative of the population in terms of age and socio-economic status. However, a variety of methods were used - that is, repeated 24-h recalls, estimated food diaries and FFQ. None of the methods were validated to assess water and fluid intakes. The methods used to record liquid foods - for example, soup and diluted drinks - were inconsistent. Clarity and consistency on definitions of categories of beverages to facilitate comparisons between countries are needed. Recommendations for a unified approach to surveying and quantifying intake of water from fluids and foods are proposed.

Anthocyanins are responsible for the red/blue colour of grapes, currants, and other fruits and vegetables. They may also be extracted for use as colour additives (E163) or concentrated for use as colouring foods. Consumer exposures have been assessed using data on natural occurrence, use levels and frequencies from food manufacturers and European food consumption data. Intakes from natural occurrence can be up to 4 mg kg bw(-1) day(-1) at the mean and up to 17 mg kg bw(-1) day(-1) for children who are high level consumers of red/black berries and small fruits. High-level intakes for children from food colour and colouring food applications lie in the range 0.3-6.3 mg kg bw(-1) day(-1) and for adults at 0.6-2.8 mg kg bw(-1) day(-1). Exposures from food colour use and colouring foods separately or combined are therefore lower than those from natural occurrence in foods.

European methods for assessing dietary exposures to nutrients, additives and other substances in food are limited by the availability of detailed food consumption data for all member states. A proposed comprehensive European dietary exposure model (CEDEM) applies summary data published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in a deterministic model based on an algorithm from the EFSA intake method for food additives. The proposed approach can predict estimates of food additive exposure provided in previous EFSA scientific opinions that were based on the full European food consumption database.

Fruit and vegetables make an important contribution to health, partly due to the composition of phytonutrients, such as carotenoids and polyphenols. The aim of the present study was to quantify the intake of fruit and vegetables across different European countries using food consumption data of increasing complexity: food balance sheets (FBS); the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) Comprehensive Database; individual food consumption data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS). Across Europe, the average consumption of fruit and vegetables ranged from 192 to 824 g/d (FBS data). Based on EFSA data, nine out of fourteen countries consumed < 400 g/d (recommended by the WHO), although even in the highest-consuming countries such as Spain, 36 % did not reach the target intake. In the UK, the average consumption of fruit and vegetables was 310 g/d (NDNS data). Generally, phytonutrient intake increased in accordance with fruit and vegetable intake across all European countries with the exception of lycopene (from tomatoes), which appeared to be higher in some countries that consumed less fruit and vegetables. There were little differences in the average intake of flavanols, flavonols and lycopene in those who did or did not meet the 400 g/d recommendation in the UK. However, average intakes of carotenoid, flavanone, anthocyanidin and ellagic acid were higher in those who consumed >400 g/d of fruit and vegetables compared with those who did not. Overall, intakes of phytonutrients are highly variable, suggesting that while some individuals obtain healthful amounts, there may be others who do not gain all the potential benefits associated with phytonutrients in the diet.

Polyols are approved for use as sweeteners in specific foods but they may be used for other technological purposes in a wider range of foods, all on a quantum satis basis. The European Polyols Association (EPA) has identified 24 categories of food where polyols are used and it has been able to establish the levels at which the polyols are used in each type of food and whether for sweetening or non-sweetening purposes. The UK National Dietary and Nutrition survey database was used to estimate potential exposures to total polyols based on reported use levels. It was possible to express potential polyol intake on the basis of exposure relating to a single eating occasion, a meal period, 1 day and the average over 4 days of the survey. Potential intakes of polyols were approximately twice that found on a per-item or a meal-period basis when estimated on a daily basis. Apparent intakes were lower when averaged over the 4 days of the survey. It was felt that intake expressed on a per-meal occasion basis was most relevant to the development of digestive discomfort. On the basis of maximum use levels of polyols in all food categories, adults had the highest intake of total polyols up to 5.6 g per meal period at the 95th percentile. However, when expressed on a bodyweight basis, children had higher intakes, up to 0.15 g kg(-1) bw per meal period. Distributions of potential polyol exposures were highly skewed towards lower values with higher levels of exposure relating to sweetener uses occurring relatively infrequently.

Current guidelines for assessing human exposures to nutrients and other substances used in animal feed are based on methods used for veterinary pharmaceuticals. These methods assume high-level daily consumption of animal products and do not take account of differences between species or between consuming humans. A more detailed dietary modelling approach is described, which takes these factors into account as well as high-level consumption by different age groups. The proposed approach is evaluated in three case studies, iodine, selenium and astaxanthin, which have previously undergone thorough evaluation by EU authorities. When applied in a tiered approach, the proposed model provides results that are consistent with previous assessments and with results obtained using other modelling techniques. The results indicate that the method has the potential to provide a conservative, reliable and flexible alternative to existing approaches to intake estimation.

The Union of European Beverages Associations (UNESDA) has undertaken a screening exercise to determine whether any of the colours used in non-alcoholic beverages has the potential for high consumers to exceed the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The organisation undertook a survey of its membership to identify current use levels in non-alcoholic beverages. Information about the consumption of beverages and other foods that can contain the colours was derived from UK survey data because UK consumers were shown to represent some of the highest in the EU. A methodology was developed which added the intake of high level consumers of beverages to average intakes from all other uses to estimate total high level intake. A hierarchical approach used maximum approved use levels (where available) at the first tier and, if intakes exceed the ADI or maximum use levels were not available, UNESDA usage survey data at the second tier. Of the 33 colours approved for use in beverages nine were eliminated from further consideration at Tier 1. A further 22 colours were eliminated from further consideration at Tier 2. Two colours (E101 riboflavins and E110 sunset yellow) required further evaluation but under practical use conditions neither of these colours had the potential to exceed its ADI. Some colours used in beverages are permitted quantum satis in other foods and so permitted use levels were not available. Further information is required about these uses to determine whether total intakes from all foods have the potential to exceed ADIs.

Dietary exposures to mineral hydrocarbons were estimated from information about patterns of usage, concentrations in foods and quantities of foods consumed. An industry survey showed that the largest usage of food-grade white mineral oils was in plastics manufacture although the majority are used in non-food applications. The largest volumes of wax usage were in packaging. Conservative estimates indicated that daily intakes of white mineral oils ranged from 0.39 to 0.91 mg/kg bw/day for adults and from 0.75 to 1.77 mg/kg bw/day for children (mean and 97.5th percentiles). Total wax intakes ranged from 0.08 to 0.19 mg/kg bw/day for adults and 0.23 to 0.64 mg/kg bw/day for pre-school children. When usage factors were applied, estimates of chronic intakes of white oils were reduced to 0.09-0.20 mg/kg bw/day for adults and to 0.17-0.39 mg/kg bw/day for children. Total wax intakes were reduced to 0.01-0.02 mg/kg bw/day for adults and to 0.02-0.06 mg/kg bw/day for children. For white mineral oils the principal source of exposure for most consumers was imported de-dusted grain. The principal source of potential wax exposure was from glazing agents on confectionery. There was no evidence of intakes exceeding SCF ADIs for microcrystalline waxes or certain white mineral oils and levels of exposure were similar to those of naturally-occurring mineral hydrocarbons in foods.

In some cases a single dose above an acceptable daily intake could elicit an adverse effect. In other cases a cumulative dose over several days may be necessary before an effect is expressed. Estimates of acute intake must relate to what is known about the toxicokinetics of the substance, in relation to the toxicological studies associated with the relevant end point. This is because estimates of intake can vary considerably over even a few days in some circumstances. Acute reference doses should therefore be qualified by an exposure interval. Default values can introduce considerable conservatism into intake estimates. Techniques for estimating acute intakes are very varied. They can range in complexity from conservative screening methods to sophisticated techniques designed to simulate real situations. Monte Carlo models allow for the distributions of chemical concentrations and food consumption patterns to be taken into account. For acute dietary risk assessments very high upper percentile cutoffs are sometimes applied, even as high as 99.9%. However, assumptions applied in such methods can lead to misleading results. Great care must also be used when interpreting such statistics because uncertainty and inaccuracy in the data increase considerably in the upper "tail" of the distribution.

The Budget Method, originally developed for determining food additive use limits, has been proposed as a tool for screening food additive intakes to establish monitoring priorities. Theoretical Maximum Daily Intake (TMDI) estimates derived using the Budget Method rely on assumptions regarding physiological requirements for energy and liquid and on the energy density of food rather than on food consumption survey data. This report summarizes work performed to determine the validity of Budget Method assumptions and to assess the potential for error in assigning monitoring priority based on Budget Method results. Budget Method assumptions regarding energy and liquid intake were compared with data from UK, German and US nationwide food consumption surveys. It was found that the Budget Method assumptions of energy intake and liquid intake are higher than mean intakes reported in surveys. The Budget Method assumption regarding energy density of foods also was found to be a slight overestimate. Budget Method TMDIs for case study additives were in each case larger than survey-based 95th percentile per capita additive intake estimates. Based on these results, the Budget Method appears to be a suitably conservative screen for establishing additive monitoring priorities based on potential lifetime average intakes.

In vivo tibia lead measurements of 20 non-occupationally exposed and 190 occupationally exposed people drawn from three factories were made using a non-invasive x ray fluorescence technique in which characteristic x rays from lead are excited by gamma rays from a cadmium-109 source. The maximum skin dose to a small region of the shin was 0.45 mSv. The relation between tibia lead and blood lead was weak in workers from one factory (r = 0.11, p greater than 0.6) and among the non-occupationally exposed subjects (r = 0.07, p greater than 0.7); however, a stronger relation was observed in the other two factories (r = 0.45, p less than 0.0001 and r = 0.53, p less than 0.0001). Correlation coefficients between tibia lead and duration of employment were consistently higher at all three factories respectively (r = 0.86, p less than 0.0001; r = 0.61, p less than 0.0001; r = 0.80, p less than 0.0001). A strong relation was observed between tibia lead and a simple, time integrated, blood lead index among workers from the two factories from which blood lead histories were available. The regression equation from two groups of workers (n = 88, 79) did not significantly differ despite different exposure conditions. The correlation coefficient for the combined data set (n = 167) was 0.84 (p less than 0.0001). This shows clearly that tibia lead, measured in vivo by x-ray fluorescence, provides a good indicator of long term exposure to lead as assessed by a cumulative blood lead index.