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Shrimp farming has been devastated by several diseases. Disease outbreaks can be prevented by optimising environmental conditions or by eliminating risks factors including carrier organisms. These can be achieved through proper pond preparation. One important step in pond preparation is the application of hydrated lime. This paper describes the effect of hydrated lime application to condition pond soil to pH 11 on the pond ecosystem, more specifically on soil pH and biota. The experiment was done using three 600 m2 brackish water ponds. After hydrated lime application, the wet soil pH on the 1st-8th day was significantly higher (P<0.05) compared to the pH before liming to pH 11, and flushing after flooding for 24 h. Soil pH of 11 was observed 24-48h after lime application. Moreover, unwanted species like crabs and fish were found dead. Liming to pH 11 negatively affects the counts of green vibrio colonies thereby decreasing the percentage of green vibrios (PGV). In another experiment, three 750m2 earthen ponds were used. The pond soils were previously positive for the Whitespot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), hydrated lime were applied to bring the pond soil pH to 11. After lime application, WSSV was not detected in the pond soils. Results showed that increasing the soil pH to ≥11 positively affects the pond ecosystem. Liming encourages the proliferation of yellow vibrios and the eradication of carrier species (i.e. crabs) as well as predators (i.e. fish) in the ponds. Furthermore, liming to pH 11 may also eradicate White spot virus from the pond sediment. To implement a 1-unit increase in wet pH, hydrated lime should be applied at 2T/ha.

Accumulation and depletion including withdrawal period for oxytetracycline (OTC) and oxolinic acid (OXA) in pompano (Trachinotus blochii) were determined following oral administration. Pompano were cultured in 250-L fiberglass tanks in a flow-through system provided with aeration. Observed average temperature was 30°C; salinity was 30 ppt. Fish were starved for 2 days then fed with OTC medicated diet (75mg/kg fish/day) or OXA medicated diet (30 mg/kg fish/day) 3 times a day for 10 successive days at 2% body weight and thereafter switched to regular diet for 45 days. Muscle and blood samples were taken at regular intervals during and after cessation of medication. OTC residues in the muscle and blood were analysed using the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Peak OTC accumulation was observed at day 10 of treatment. Higher OTC accumulation was observed in the muscle (0.88+0.27 µg/g) than in the blood (0.3+0.09 µg/ml). OXA accumulation peaked on day 5 of treatment; higher OXA accumulation was observed in the muscle (0.11+0.06 µg/g) compared to blood (0.005+0.0001 ug/ml). Withdrawal period at 30°C for OTC in pompano muscle was 19 days (570 degree-days) and 17 days (510 degree-days) in the blood. For OXA, the withdrawal period in pompano muscle and blood at 30°C temperature was 3 days (90 degree-days).

This manual aims to provide updated information on the diseases of mud crabs initially authored by Lavilla-Pitogo and dela Peña (2004). It includes the name of the disease, causative agent, stages affected, effects on mud crab and methods of prevention and control. Except for the infectious diseases caused by viruses, which can be detected through molecular methods, most of the diseases can be visually diagnosed. Photographs of the external and internal anatomy of a normal mud crab, including the different sexes and species are included to help readers differentiate a normal from a diseased mud crab.

Myanmar is one of the OIE members and the Department of Fisheries (DoF) is highly concerned with transboundary aquatic animal pathogens. Therefore, the Aquatic Animal Health & Disease Control Section has already been formed not only for field diagnostic surveys but also for border control especially at international airport and border trade areas by checking and counter checking export and import of aquatic animals and products. At the moment, the DoF is stressing an issue of some transboundary diseases for finfish such as Gyrodactylus sp., Dactylogyrus sp., Argulus sp., Trichodena sp., Streptococcus sp., Aeromonas sp., and for crustacean are MrNV/XSV and WSSV. In addition, the DoF is facing challenges with parasitic disease and bacterial disease problems due to poor water quality management at culturing fish ponds. For the prevention and control of fish diseases within the country, the DoF is issuing Health Certificates by physical and microbiological examination of fishes and fisheries products. At the same time, Quarterly report on fish disease has being regularly submitted to NACA, OIE since 1998 until now. Although the DoF has no specific law and legislation on the control of quarantine pest and disease of aquatic animal, a good aquaculture practice has been implemented and code of conduct responsible for aquaculture is being followed in the country. The aquatic health management is a challenging issue in aquaculture development. Myanmar is still needing technical assistance to improve quarantine system especially for importation and exportation of live aquatic animals. Moreover, monitoring and surveillance programs with harmonized aquatic emergency preparedness and response system are required to boost up not only for Myanmar but also for effective management of transboundary disease outbreaks in Southeast Asia.

Emergency preparedness is the ability to respond effectively and in a timely fashion to aquatic animal disease emergencies (e.g. disease outbreaks, mass mortalities). It is a key element of a National Strategy on Aquatic Animal Health and an important consideration of the Progressive Management Pathway for improving Aquaculture Biosecurity. The important principles, requirements and elements and components of emergency prepareness and contingency plans are briefly described. The emergency preparedness response system audit is also presented as contingency planning arrangements that can provide useful insights and guidance in improving response action to disease emergencies. The paper concludes that many important lessons and insights learned from dealing with disease epizootics in the early 2000 remains valid after more than two decades when the aquaculture sector continues to be plagued with emerging diseases. Past lessons and more recent experiences demonstrated the value of rapid response, reporting/notification by competent authorities, continuous development of knowledge base and capacities in diagnostics, epidemiology, risk analysis, advanced financial planning and the important roles of governments and producer sectors in co-managing disease outbreak events as they both remain the critical entities responsible for launching rapid response. Skills and knowledge need to be passed on to locals as they are in the frontline of any disease emergency. Share key lessons from experiences by state and non-state actors (producer and academic sectors and other important players in the value chain), the international players that launch emergency responses, disease investigations and field situation assessments as well as financial entities that support these actions need to be continued. However, we also need to do - a stock taking exercise to evaluate what worked, what did not work, what resources are needed and to understand what are the new drivers for aquatic animal

Aquaculture is one of the important sectors in the economy of most Asia-Pacific countries. However, majority of aquaculture farms are small-scale and most often lack the necessary facilities to comply with or are not well informed of the product standards imposed by concerned authorities, especially for international trade. Most countries in the region have a high reliance on aquatic animals as the major source of protein for their populations. In the past 20 years, farming of shrimp and fish for export has become a major employer and revenue earner for many countries in the region. Aquaculture is a major employer, contributes significantly to national economies, assists in poverty reduction, and is an important element in food security and other national development priorities. Aquaculture has developed rapidly in the region and is now a significant component in the national economies of many countries. However, recent disease events in fish and shrimp farming have indicated that preparedness and response measures are lacking, contributing to spread of disease across large areas of the countries involved. The growth of aquaculture in recent decades has been dependent on the international movement of aquatic animals and, in particular, the introduction of non-native species. The movement of live aquatic animals and their products has the potential to spread pathogens from one country or region to another, which may result to disease outbreaks. In shrimps as example, most major disease outbreaks were associated with the movement of live animals (broodstock, nauplii and postlarvae) when the patterns of disease spread were analyzed. Many aquatic animal diseases, once established, are often difficult to treat or to eliminate. Over the past 30 years, the Asia-Pacific region has been swept by a number of devastating diseases of aquatic animals which have caused massive economic and social losses. These include spread and outbreaks of infection with Aphanomyces invadans (E

In Thailand, Department of Fisheries (DoF) is the competent authority for various aspects of aquatic animals including aquatic animal health. There are two principal legislation giving DoF power to apply for aquatic animal disease prevention and control measures in the country as well as import-export control; namely, Royal Ordinance on Fisheries and Animal Epidemic Act. DoF has two national reference laboratories for aquatic animal health, one is Aquatic Animal Health Research and Development Division (AAHRDD) for freshwater aquatic animal disease diagnosis and another is Songkhla Aquatic Animal Health Research Center (SAAHRC) for brackish water aquatic animal disease diagnosis. Both are ISO/IEC 17025 accredited laboratories. Besides, there are 19 regional laboratories of DoF located in different areas of the country. All of 21 laboratories are responsible for performing disease diagnosis service for fish farmers as well as for disease surveillance. There are a number of surveillance and control programs for aquatic animal diseases in Thailand. Passive surveillance: information can be collected from disease reporting and other sources such as scientific research, news, publications, social network, or rumor. Active surveillance: to provide assurance of disease status for trade purposes, DoF has setup nationally active targeted surveillance program for demonstrating a number of diseases free status of country or farm establishment in accordance with OIE Aquatic Animal Health Code. There are several farm standards in Thailand such as Good Aquaculture Practices for Hatchery of Disease Free Pacific White Shrimp, Good Aquaculture Practices for Marine Shrimp Farm, and Aquaculture Establishment for Export of Aquatic Animals. Each standard includes necessary biosecurity practices in order to prevent the introduction of pathogenic agent into or spread within or release from the farm. To control domestic movement of live aquatic animals, in normal situation, Aquatic Animal M

The regulatory authority responsible for the control of aquatic animal diseases in Japan is the Animal Products Safety Division, Food Safety and Consumer Affairs Bureau, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF). The ministry (Animal Products Safety Division) specifies certain diseases and their host species that are subjects for import quarantine on the basis of the law called Fisheries Resources Protection Act. The MAFF also implements risk control measures for the same diseases within Japan on the basis of another law, Fish Farming Production Maintaining Act. Currently, 24 such diseases are listed. For disease control within Japan, the MAFF issues Guideline for the Control of Aquatic Animal Diseases, which states the roles of different stakeholders, appropriate actions that are to be taken on the occurrences of specified or other diseases, fish health guidelines for fish farmers, or diagnostic methods for specified diseases, etc. Local prefectural governments in Japan are required to place personnel who work on fish health issues at the prefectural fisheries research laboratories. These people usually inspect fish farms, observe cultured aquatic animals, supervise the use of antibiotics or vaccines, and guide fish farmers for disease control. Disease diagnosis for aquatic animals is usually conducted by these local fisheries research labs for free. The Japan Fisheries Resource Conservation Association provides a comprehensive training course on fish diseases including laws or hands-on trainings for the staff of prefectural fisheries research laboratories. The JFRCA also give local fish health personnel the qualification as the fish health expert, if the person passes the examination conducted after the training course. Primary diagnosis for specified diseases is conducted by local fisheries laboratories. On the occurrence of the diseases that are suspected to be one of the specified diseases or OIE listed diseases that have not been reported in Japa

The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) of the Department of Agriculture as the Competent Authority, develops and implements rules and regulations on aquatic animal health for the Philippines. It establishes the monitoring system for OIE/NACA listed aquatic animal diseases. The disease surveillance and reporting activities are being carried out by the BFAR Fish Health Laboratory of the National Fisheries Laboratory Division and its counterparts at the regional offices. BFAR Fish Health Laboratories have different levels of diagnostic and detection capabilities for aquatic animal diseases. Diagnostic services and technical assistance are rendered to farmers on aquatic animal health. Results of diagnostic services and surveillance by BFAR central and regional offices, and other laboratories (SEAFDEC/AQD-Fish Health, DA-Biotech, Negros Prawn Cooperative) are part of the country s aquatic animal disease reports to the OIE/NACA. BFAR has a Fish Health Network that responds to aquatic animal disease emergencies. It also coordinates and collaborates through networking with research agencies, academe, private sectors and other stakeholders on aquatic animal health. The Fisheries Inspection and Quarantine Division implements the policies on biosecurity, quarantine and health certification for trade and transboundary movement of aquatic animals. It is also responsible for risk analysis on the importation of fish and fishery/aquatic products. Other regulatory requirements for in-country movement include local transport permit for fish and fishery/aquatic products for traceability. Importers and exporters are also registered by BFAR to ensure compliance to sanitary and food safety measures and requirements. BFAR is continuously strengthening its technical capacity, human resources, policies and regulations for a more efficient implementation of aquatic animal health services that includes response to transboundary disease emergencies of aquatic animals.

The overall objective of this technical consultation is to bring together the representatives of ASEAN Member States and technical experts to examine the status of aquatic emergency preparedness and response systems currently being practiced in the region in order to identify gaps and other initiatives for regional cooperation. In the general sense, the RTC is successful in achieving the general objective. As for the specific objectives, (a) to assess existing laws, legislations and standard operating procedures (SOPs), among others had been partially achieved. This is because the consultation didn t assess but was only informed (through the reports of country representatives) of the current situation in ASEAN member countries. The way forward of this is to complete the EPRS audit questionnaire as basis of the more systematic assessment. The second objective is (b) to assess the need for a regional aquatic EPRS in the ASEAN, the participant voted in the affirmative. The way forward of this is to create the ASEAN guidelines including the mechanics. The third objective is to (c) enhance cooperation among Member States, regional/international organizations and other relevant stakeholders on initiatives that support aquatic EPRS for effective management of aquatic animal disease outbreaks. This objective has been achieved. The way forward for this is to get the same people for a planned and proposed consultation II for continuity and for emphasis on more private sector and academe representation.

Singapore s population-dense, urban environment presents a unique context for her increasingly important aquaculture industry. This paper provides an overview of Singapore s existing aquatic emergency preparedness and response systems, which have been constructed and refined by the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority (AVA) in view of past experience with detections of pathogens of warmwater fish. These systems have been developed to fulfil Singapore s obligations as an OIE member country and AVA s duty to safeguard food security, animal and public health. As a trade and export hub, it is critical for Singapore to have timely detection and reporting of diseases which can have an impact on trade. Singapore also needs to balance the needs and perceptions of the multiple stakeholders using the limited space and resources in our island state. Finally, this paper outlines the current issues and gaps of Singapore s existing aquatic emergency preparedness and response systems.

The purpose of this survey is to obtain information on national capacity and the agencies mandated to implement emergency preparedness and response systems with respect to aquatic animal diseases. The results of this survey will help guide regional and national strategic planning with respect to improving aquatic EPR systems, thereby improving aquatic animal health more broadly and assuring adequate and rational support services to achieve sustainable aquaculture development. This FAO questionnaire on aquatic EPR system capacity and performance is a country level self-assessment survey with four sections: (1) general administration, (2) operational components, (3) support systems and (4) additional information.

Outbreaks of acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (AHPND) have caused great economic losses to many shrimp producing countries in Asia since its first appearance in 2009. The causative agent was first reported in 2013 as specific isolates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VPAHPND) that were later found to harbor a plasmid (pVA) encoding the Pir-like binary toxin genes PirvpA and PirvpB. More recent information indicates that pVA plasmid and variants occur in many Vibrio parahaemolyticus serotypes and also in other Vibrio species such as V. campbellii, V. harveyi and V. owensii. Information on such genomic and proteomic studies of different VPAHPND isolates from different countries are reviewed. A cohort study carried out in Thailand in 2014 indicated that AHPND outbreaks account for only a portion of the disease outbreaks reported by shrimp farmers as outbreaks of early mortality syndrome (EMS). It is urgent that the etiology of the other EMS-associated mortalities be investigated and not be overlooked. It is recommended that a regional research network and surveillance program for newly-emerging or re-emerging pathogens be established to speed up the process of diagnosis and the implementation of coordinated control measures and to avoid a repeat of the EMS/AHPND scenario.

The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) is the intergovernmental organisation responsible for improving animal health worldwide. It is recognised as a reference organisation by the World Trade Organization (WTO) to develop international standards for animal health and zoonoses; as of May 2018, it counts a total of 182 Members. As the global leader for animal health and welfare standards, the OIE plays an influential role in the prevention, control and information sharing of animal diseases including aquatic animal diseases. The objectives of OIE are to: (1) Ensure transparency in the global animal disease situation; (2) Collect, analyse and disseminate veterinary scientific information; (3) Encourage international solidarity in the control of animal diseases; (4) Safeguard World trade by publishing health standards for international, trade in animals and animal products; (5) Improve the legal framework and resources, national veterinary services and aquatic animal health services; and (6) to provide a better guarantee of food of animal origin and to promote animal welfare. As an international standard setting organisation, the OIE Aquatic Animal Health Code (the Aquatic Code) provides standards for the improvement of aquatic animal health worldwide. It also includes standards for the welfare of farmed fish and use of antimicrobial agents in aquatic animals. The sanitary measures in the Aquatic Code provide international standards on importing and exporting countries for early detection, reporting and control of pathogenic agents in aquatic animals (amphibians, crustaceans, fish and molluscs) and to prevent their spread via international trade in aquatic animals and their products, while avoiding unjustified sanitary barriers to trade. In addition, to provide a standardised approach to the diagnosis of the diseases listed in the Aquatic Code and to facilitate health certification for trade in aquatic animals and aquatic animal products, the OIE also developed

The Department of Fisheries (DoF) Malaysia is the custodian of the Fisheries Act 1985, which serves as the main legislative source for subsidiary regulations, including aquaculture and fish health management. It has established Emergency Disease Task Force Committee for any emergency related to disease outbreak as well as standard operating procedures for massive fish kill. This committee consists of taskforce teams from federal and/or state fisheries and oversee the operations of the task force. Fisheries Biosecurity Division under DoF Malaysia holds the primary responsibility for managing the country s emergency preparedness and response system for aquatic animal diseases. As for early detection system, Fisheries Biosecurity Division has established official control and official analysis for targeted diseases listed under OIE and National Listed Diseases. Fish health monitoring programmes are conducted every six months and samples are analyzed by accredited laboratories. Quarterly and half year reports are submitted to representative offices for the health status of targeted disease. Apart from the targeted fish health monitoring program, epidemiology on common and emerging diseases are conducted by National Fish Health Research Division (NaFisH) which is the only research and development arm under DoF. Laboratories under Fisheries Biosecurity Division are responsible for organizing and coordinating surveillance programs for diseases in the OIE list while NaFisH is responsible for conducting research and development on aquatic diseases that cause high losses in industry since 2002. Currently, the DoF has four servicing laboratories under Fisheries Biosecurity Division and one NaFisH laboratory under Fisheries Research Institute for fish health diagnosis in Malaysia.

Tilapia lake virus (TiLV) is a novel RNA virus resembling Orthomyxovirus. It has been recently re-classified to Tilapia tilapinevirus species, under Tilapinevirus genus, Amnoonviridae family (ICTV, 2018). Since the first discovery in Israel in 2014, so far TiLV has been reported from 14 countries in three continents (Asia, Africa, and South America). Thailand is one of the affected countries that reported emergence of this virus in 2017. Initially, we employed nested RT-PCR primer sequences previously published for TiLV diagnosis. However, the resulting amplification of nonspecific fish genes led us to modify the nested RT-PCR protocols into a semi-nested RT-PCR by omitting a non-specific primer to avoid false positive results. Subsequently, our molecular work together with histopathology and sequence analysis confirmed the presence of TiLV infection in Thailand. Prior to the publication of our manuscript, we informed the Thai Department of Fisheries of our discovery of TiLV in Thailand. Our publication was preceded by a brief article at the website of the Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia-Pacific in which we warned of the spread of TiLV and offered free use of a newly improved, semi-nested RT-PCR method and positive control plasmid for detection of TiLV. To date, we have provided positive controls in response to 44 requests from 24 countries who have expressed their appreciation for our attempt to help in emergent controlling the spread of this fish pathogen. Our current study focuses on genetic diversity of TiLV and development of detection method that covers all genetic variants.

Viet Nam is one of the top worldwide producers of aquaculture products which accounts for about 22 percent of total agricultural GDP of Viet Nam. Recently, diseases have become the biggest challenge for global aquaculture development therefore the Vietnamese government has paid close attention to develop an effective aquatic emergency preparedness and response system to timely deal with disease introduction and outbreaks. The Department of Animal Health (DAH), under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD), which is the competent authority of aquatic animal health management. To monitor transboundary diseases (especially the OIE-listed diseases), the current Vietnamese regulations only allow import of aquatic animals and its products which are certified as disease-free by competent authority of exporting country, and export aquatic animals and its products complying with importing conditions of importing country. Regional Animal Health Offices (belong to DAH) shall carry out sampling for testing pathogens and isolation for imported aquatic animals and its products as regulated in Circular 26/2016/TT-BNNPTNT dated 30 June 2016 before granting permit to import or export. For domestic transportation of aquatic animals, provincial sub DAH is responsible for monitoring infectious pathogens to certify disease-free status of aquatic animals before issuing health certificate for movement. In addition, a reporting and response system to aquatic animal diseases was established in the country from farm level to central level (DAH). Early detection and warning of diseases is critical for disease prevention and control, thus since 2014, the DAH has implemented national surveillance programs focusing on dangerous diseases in the key farming species (brackish-water shrimps, pangasius catfish) according to Circular 04/2016/TT-BNNPTNT dated 10 May 2016 of MARD and support exportation of aquatic animals and its products complying with international regulations and imp

The Competent Authority (CA) on aquatic animal health in Indonesia is the Directorate Aquaculture Area Development and Fish Health of the Directorate General of Aquaculture (DGA) under the Ministry of Marine Affairs. CA is supported by national reference laboratories and professional human resources that are capable of fish disease diagnosis; as well as an established network with the farmers, trading association, and relevant stakeholders which are actively involved in national meetings, conferences, socialization of emerging diseases and policy and regulation. To control transboundary fish disease at national level, the government of Indonesia has a National Strategy on Aquatic Animal Health and Environment, which was developed by FAO under project of TCP/INS/3402: 2013-2015) collaboration with DGA, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF). To strenghten the implementation of aquaculture in the country, the Indonesian Government issued President regulation Number 28 in 2017 which includes the implementation of fish health management as well as emergency response (Section VI, Article 60). To support the implementation of EPRS, Special Task Force Teams are formed by the Director General of Aquaculture. Stakeholders' participation is very important in the implementation of EPRS, such as a prompt report by fish farmers and extension officer to the upper level fisheries officers at district, provincial, and national level of any observed unusual mortality that indicates disease outbreaks. EPRS activities consist of emergency response on early warning (disease information, disease preventing guideline and regulation); early detection (surveillance, appointed diagnostic laboratory); and early response (collecting information, task force formation, public awareness). Standard Operational Procedures, and detection and control were done based on published scientific information available and guidelines from World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), Network of Aquac

Effective monitoring of hazardous incidents for timely dissemination of notifications and warnings involves a thoughtful mixture and application of information, technology and intuitional processes. It starts with the identification of the right data - data to be used in decision making processes - from the right sources - authoritative sources that can be trusted and relied upon. Processes must then be developed to routinely and swiftly acquire, process, and ingest these data into an early warning system (EWS). Decision criteria - sometime referred to as business rules - must be established to transform these data into actionable information, including for the dissemination of warning messages. Finally, the warning messages must be quickly and securely transmitted to the intended recipients, often via redundant mechanisms to insure receipt. Of course, warning messages themselves, even if timely, accurate, and actionable, are not sufficient without an overall context in which to assess them as well as pre-established processes for taking actions, sometimes referred to as Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). However, even the best SOPs will be ineffective if their users are not adequately skilled and knowledgeable. This generally means that a training and exercise program must be a key component of any successful monitoring and warning system. These elements of effective monitoring - and strategies for their implementation - are described and illustrated via the Pacific Disaster Center s DisasterAWARE all-hazards monitoring, early warning and decision support system.

Importation of live fish to Brunei Darussalam have incurred a major biosecurity risk to the aquaculture industry. Preventing disease incursions through quarantine, legislation and education is currently the most cost-effective management approach in Brunei. Once an incursion has occurred, national emergency response system arrangements are implemented to facilitate immediate response actions for containment and eradication. Brunei Darussalam has a list of legislation and policies to aid in the immediate response of disease outbreak. However, fisheries staff lack basic emergency response training and there are few skilled staff and resources available. Simulation exercise to review the effectiveness of the AEPR system needs to be addressed.

A few decades ago, Cambodia was rich in both freshwater and marine fisheries resources because of its favorable geographical area. However, the fisheries resources have depleted and were unable to totally fulfill the increasing fish demands of its people. This was caused by various factors including unfavorable climate changes, increase in population, improper agricultural production practices, and other human affecting activities. In this sense, aquaculture development in Cambodia becomes increasingly important in order to reduce the fishing pressure on its natural resources which are mainly for food security and economy of Cambodian people. Aside from this, aquatic animals in the country are vulnerable to infectious aquatic transboundary diseases as a result of insufficient and low transboundary diseases monitoring capacity. Neither the official list of aquatic transboundary diseases was created nor are the emergency preparedness and response systems for effective management of transboundary disease outbreaks in Cambodia has been well-established. Nonetheless, the government fisheries officers of both central and provincial levels have conducted fish health monitoring and undertake sample collection from fish farmers since 2016 in 10 targeted provinces as funded by the European Union s Programme. Regarding the capacity of the diagnostic laboratory, officers can perform level I and II but not for all species and diseases. Level III diagnoses cannot be effectively performed yet due to the lack of facilities, skills, and knowledge. The Marine Aquaculture Research and Development Center (MARDeC) is the only main laboratory for aquatic animal health diagnosis in the country. To minimize the spread of aquatic transboundary diseases in freshwater and seawater, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries has been moving to initiate and establish policies regarding: (1) the registrations, licensing, and law enforcement; (2) the inspection of sites; (3) and the issu

The information presented in this paper were taken from several key FAO documents. The objective is to continuously raise awareness about the concept of risk analysis and its application to the aquaculture sector. The paper provides information in response to several key risk questions, e.g.: (1) what is risk versus hazard, (2) what is risk analysis, (3) who uses risk analysis, (4) why do countries need to be able to use risk analysis? An overview of the risks in aquaculture is also provided in terms of the process and approaches; and the different risk sectors in aquaculture. The paper concludes with some key points and challenges. Risk analysis is a decisionmaking tool that contributes to protecting national health and welfare. It can also contribute to sustainable aquaculture and the success of individual aquaculture businesses and operations. Risk analysis does not stand alone - it supports and is supported by other components of a National Strategy on Aquatic Animal Health. A basic strength of the risk analysis process is its flexibility - it is adaptable to almost any sector/system where risk and uncertainty occur. Countries will often be confronted with a lack of scientific information, both quality and quantity, to support the risk analysis process. Nevertheless, governments must often act under these uncertainties as well as make decisions in the face of a great deal of complexity, significant variability, and multiple management goals.

Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) is a generic name used to describe the observed mortality occurring within the first 30 days of stocking shrimp (Penaeus sp.) post larvae (PL) in ponds. The aquaculture species reported to be affected by EMS are Penaeus monodon, P. vannamei and P. chinensis, of which P. monodon is the most susceptible. EMS has been reported in China (2009), Viet Nam (2010), Malaysia and Borneo (2011), and Thailand (2012). EMS could have been present in the Philippines as early as 2007 but this was not given attention then. Fish farmers in the Philippines observed that mortalities that occur as early as one week after stocking P. monodon PL in ponds or within two months of stocking were not due to the whitespot syndrome virus (WSSV). Hence, the farmers call it the two-month mortality syndrome (Tendencia et al., 2014). EMS is associated with WSSV, microsporidian infestation, Vibrio infection, and chemical contamination (Flegel, 2016; FAO, 2013). Affected shrimps have pale to whitish hepatopancreas with black spots or streaks, rigid and hard to squash. Histopathology of the hepatopancreas of shrimp samples from EMS cases showed massive necrosis and sloughing or shedding of the epithelial cells. EMS characterised by these specific histopathological changes in the hepatopancreas is called Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND). Incidence of AHPND has been recently reported in China, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam.

Mud crab hatchery suffers from low survival due to susceptibility to bacterial infection in the early larval stages among many causes. Despite food safety issues, antibiotics continue to be used in the absence of effective alternatives. In this study, screening of plant extracts was conducted to determine their suitability as antimicrobial agents against pathogens causing low survival in the hatchery. In addition, potential probionts were isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of mud crab, and water and sediments of mud crab grow-out ponds. Crude ethanolic extracts from various terrestrial and mangrove trees were tested for in vitro antimicrobial activity and toxicity to mud crab zoea and megalopa. In addition, the in vivo antimicrobial efficacies of the selected extracts were tested by oral administration followed by experimental challenge with Vibrio harveryi. On the other hand, the putative probionts, were tested for pathogenicity against mud crab zoea and megalopa and quorum sensing inhibition activity against V. harveyi. Finally the extracts and probionts were tested for their efficacy in simulated hatchery and grow-out trials. Results showed that extracts of Terminalia cattapa and the potential probiont Bacillus subtilis G100R11 showed antimicrobial and probiotic activity in in vitro and in vivo tests. In simulated hatchery trials, T. cattapa administration successfully produced crab instar with a survival of 1.3-1.8% in trials 1 and 2 comparable to antibiotic control. B. subtilis produced crab instar with survival of 0.8-1.0% in trials 1 and 2, better than the commercial probiotic with 0-0.13% survival. Using T. cattapa and B. subtilis, survival was above 30% until zoea 5 but suddenly dropped below 5% during metamorphosis to megalopa where high incidence of incomplete molting was observed. If difficulty affecting the molting process is addressed, high survival from zoea to megalopa and crab instar will be achievable.

Mortalities due to cannibalism and diseases have been reported as major problems in the grow-out phase of mud crab production. This study aimed to identify and describe diseases affecting farmed and wild mud crab (mangrove crab) including predisposing, risk and protective factors, and possible prevention and control measures. A total of 767 wild and farmed mud crab samples were collected. External examination showed abnormalities such as short abdominal flap, discoloration of the abdominal region, darker carapace, lesions on carapace, claws and legs, and presence of epibionts like algae and the barnacles Balanus sp. on the carapace. Internally, necrotic, black and brown gills, and discolored gonads were observed. Stalked barnacles, Octolasmis spp., were observed in the gills. White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) was detected in 14 samples sourced from farms and Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) in 2 wild samples. WSSV was implicated in mortality cases. Low temperature and presence of WSSV positive shrimp were identified as risk factors for WSSV infection or outbreak. Pathogenicity tests for some isolated bacteria suggested that these may cause mortality in mud crab under stressful conditions. To prevent mortality due to WSSV infection, it is recommended to avoid polyculture of mud crab with shrimp and/or other crustaceans.

Whitespot syndrome virus (WSSV) has caused severe production drops in the shrimp industry. Numerous scientific manuscripts deal with WSSV epidemiology, but reports on minimizing disease outbreaks through ecological means are rare. Industry stakeholders resorted to various innovative techniques to recover from heavy economic losses. Some shrimp farmers in the Philippines claimed that ‘greenwater’ (GW) technology could prevent disease outbreaks due to WSSV. The efficiency of the GW technology was evaluated by comparing three ponds using the GW culture technique with three ponds not using it. WSSV was detected only in one of the GW ponds and not in the non-GW ponds. No WSSV disease outbreak occurred, and no conclusion could be reached. In GW ponds, available soil sulphur content was lower; and in water, the observed counts of luminous bacteria were lower and counts of Chlorophyceae were higher. Chlorophyceae, i.e. algae, enhanced nutrient uptake in effluent streams resulting in improved water quality in Penaeus monodon Fabricius culture ponds. This suggests that the use of the GW technique to culture P. monodon improved water quality.

Aquaculture is the fastest food-producing sector. It is the farming of aquatic organisms, like crustaceans, fish, molluscs and plants. Culture of aquatic organisms, particularly shrimps, is usually done in earthen ponds with some intervention in the rearing process to enhance production. Some of these processes to increase production are pond preparation, regular stocking, feeding, and the use of probiotics and other chemicals to improve soil, water quality, shrimp growth and immunity against diseases. The long range effect of the use of probiotics and other chemicals on the environment and on shrimps is unknown. Despite the various inputs, diseases continue to plague the industry, which could be due to the deteriorating environmental conditions that cause stress in shrimps thus making them susceptible to infection. Furthermore, chemicals and nutrients from aquaculture may affect biodiversity of the receiving environment. Responsible aquaculture is a sustainable development approach that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. There should be a good balance between satisfying human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving natural resources. Human health or food safety as well as economic efficiency and/or livelihood opportunities should be taken into consideration. Responsible shrimp culture through ecological approaches to improve environmental conditions is herewith described. Ecological approaches recognize the interactions between an aquaculture farm and the external environment, including environmental resources and local communities. Ecological approaches to improve environmental conditions identified from cross sectional, longitudinal and tank studies may be classified into culture systems and phases of pond production: pond preparation and rearing. Two culture systems are identified to improve water quality: 1) the use of the greenwater

To reduce disease impact, Philippine farmers developed the green-water (GW) system, which has been spreading rapidly since 2008. In the most applied GW-system, the shrimp pond receives water from a reservoir stocked with tilapia. We collected financial data on GW and non-GW systems from farms having similar management and environmental context. All farms had more than one pond; the average pond area was < 1 ha, and total pond areas per farm ranged from 1.4 to 139 ha. The total variable and fixed costs per ha of shrimp pond were not different for GW and non-GW farms, but on GW farms the cost per kg of shrimp produced was lower. The latter was higher than the 2009 market price of 30 g shrimp for non-GW farms mainly. In GW farms the cost of seed was lower, and survival rates and individual shrimp weights at harvest were higher for an equally long culture period.

White spot syndrome virus is the most important among the shrimp diseases. It has been devastating the shrimp industry for more than 3 decades. Previous studies reported that greater percentage of yellow colonies on thiosulfate citrate bile salt sucrose agar (yellow vibrios) in the rearing water, abundant supply of natural food such as Chlorella, and the use of the greenwater technology (GW) are some ecological ways of preventing WSSV outbreak. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficiency of the 3 systems against WSSV. Shrimp, experimentally infected with WSSV by feeding with WSSV positive shrimp carcass, was cultured in tanks using three treatments: with tilapia to simulate the GW, seeded with Chlorella, and with molasses added to enhance growth of yellow vibrios. Shrimp cultured in seawater served as the control. Survival was recorded and shrimp were analyzed for WSSV quantification using qPCR upon termination. Analysis showed no significant differences in shrimp survival at 120 h post infection in all treatments and the control. However, from the original viral load of 1.40 × 101 WSSV/mg sample, WSSV decreased and was significantly lowest in shrimp cultured using GW (7.0 × 100), compared to the control (4.82 × 105) and the other treatments (3.66 × 105 for molasses added and 4.64 × 105 for Chlorella seeded) in which viral load increased 4–5 times. Shrimp survival was highest in Chlorella seeded treatment and lowest in GW. Nitrogenous waste concentrations were lowest in molasses added water and highest in GW. Results suggest that the GW culture technology provides protection against WSSV while addition of molasses lowers nitrogenous waste concentration. The use of GW in combination with the addition of molasses for shrimp culture is suggested.

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) has been affecting the shrimp industry worldwide for two decades now. It continues to bring economic losses to affected farms. Despite the many studies on its epidemiology, there is no proven treatment or control measure. Diseases, like the WSSV, results from the interaction of three factors: host, pathogen and environment. The environment plays an important role in disease development and determines the health or the immune capacity of the shrimp. High mangrove-to-pond area ratio (MPR) is reported as a protective factor against WSSV. This study investigates if mangroves affect the physicochemical properties of the water and soil as well as the prevalence of infectious agents like the WSSV by monitoring farms with different MPR (0:1, 1:1, 4:1). Results showed that quality of influent water was not significantly better in farms with high MPR. Significantly higher available sulfur was observed in MPR-4; significantly higher percentage green vibrios in the soil in MPR-0. WSSV was detected in farms with MPR-1 and MPR-4 but did not result in an outbreak, suggesting that the presence of mangroves could prevent WSSV outbreak.

This paper presents a post-hoc assessment of the introduction of intensive shrimp farming strategies, with and without green-water (GW) technology, in the Mahakam Delta where extensive systems (ES) dominate. The study also assesses the potential of integrated mangrove GW shrimp production (MGW). The method section describes the systems considered, the cost-benefit analysis applied and the assumptions for different scenarios. The data for the GW and non-GW systems were based on a survey in the Philippines. Assessing cultured shrimp yields from the total farm area showed that production from non-GW was 10% higher than from GW farms. Compared to these two systems, the MGW system produces about 20% of the total shrimp, but provides complementary livelihood options and ecosystem services. Per unit area covered, MGW system produces 20 times more shrimp than ES, while income for farmers doubles and opportunities for livelihoods enhancement associated with the mangrove area increase. Low operating costs make the ES interesting for resource poor farmers, but risks to producers and societal cost are underrated. Transferring from ES to MGW system will increase the contribution to the national economy whilst maintaining ecosystem services, that would otherwise be lost, were intensive culture systems to predominate.

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) has been devastating the shrimp industry for almost a decade. This study compares water parameters, alkalinity, and microflora in three ponds on a farm on Negros Island (Philippines) during two production cycles where WSSV infection resulted in an outbreak in 2006 but not in 2005. The total bacterial count of the pond water in 2005 was about twice as high as in 2006. However, luminous bacterial counts were twice as high in 2006 than in 2005 and total presumptive Vibrio, as counted on Vibrio selective thiosulfate citrate bilesalt sucrose (TCBS) agar, was over ten times higher, with a greater percentage of green colonies. More green colonies might indicate a higher concentration of harmful Vibrio bacteria. Total alkalinity for both production cycles was within the normal range while temperature, salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen varied and sometimes fell below or exceeded the acceptable range. In 2006, there were more instances during which the temperature fluctuated 3-4°C within the period of 07:00-17:00, and salinity more often dropped below 15 ppt. Our survey suggests that WSSV outbreak are triggered by water temperature fluctuations of 3-4°C, coupled with low salinity and a high presumptive Vibrio count

White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) has been a big problem to the worldwide shrimp industry. Exposure to stressors related to physicochemical water parameters affect WSSV infection but not all WSSV infections result in outbreaks. This paper describes a detailed monitoring of important physicochemical water parameters on a farm with 11 ponds that had WSSV infection. The virus was detected in shrimp exposed to two or more simultaneous stress factors (temperature, pH, water level) or multiple stressors for a number of days. Exposure to more than three stressors resulted in an outbreak of the disease within 3-6 days. Outbreaks were experienced in ponds with a temperature of 26-27°C, a pH lower than 8.0, pH fluctuation of 1.0, and a water depth of less than 1 m. Shrimp stocked in eight of the ponds were successfully harvested after 128-173 days of culture.

White spot sydrome virus (WSSV) is one of the most important viral disease of shrimp. Several studies to control the disease have been done. Tank experiments identified WSSV risk factors related to the physico chemical properties of the water. A few studies reported pond level WSSV risk factors. This study identifies the risk factors associated with essentially two different farming systems: polyculture and semi-intensive monoculture of Penaeus monodon. Data were gathered from a total of 174 shrimp farmers in eight provinces of the Philippines using a structured questionnaire. Forty-seven variables related to pond history and site description, period of culture, pond preparation techniques, water management, culture methods, feed and other inputs, and biosecurity measures were investigated. In the analysis for combined monoculture and polyculture farms, feeding live molluscs was identified as important WSSV risk factors. In addition to feeding live molluscs, sharing of water source with other farms, having the same receiving and water source, larger pond size, and higher stocking density were identified as important WSSV risk factors in monoculture farms. Climate, i.e. stocking during the cold months and sludge removal and its deposition on the dikes were identified as WSSV risk factors in polyculture farms. Protective factors, listed in decreasing significance, were feeding with planktons and high mangrove to pond area ratio, both observed in the dataset with both monoculture and polyculture farms, while only the latter was observed in the dataset for monoculture farms only. No protective factor was observed in the dataset for polyculture farms. This study confirmed the negative effect of sharing water source with other farms and identified several new factors influencing WSSV infection such as feeding live molluscs increases the risk, while feeding with planktons and high mangrove to pond area ratio reduce the risk.

Whitespot syndrome virus, WSSV, is the most important among the shrimp diseases. One of the suggested WSSV risk factors is the occurrence of stress since stressors could compromise the shrimp defence system thus increasing the risk of WSSV infection. Stressors are usually related to the physico-chemical properties of both water and pond bottom. This paper investigates the effect of some biotic and abiotic components of the pond ecosystem on WSSV infection and outbreak. Water physico-chemical properties and microflora of 91 production cycles of 8 semi-intensive shrimp farms were analyzed to determine WSSV risk factors, using factor analysis and logistic regression. Fluctuations of temperature and pH are important risk factors that will result to an infection but not necessarily to an outbreak. Exposure to high salinity and high temperature are important factors for an infection to result to an outbreak. The risk of an infection is reduced when the water temperature is high, salinity fluctuations are small, and percentage of yellow Vibrio colonies is greater than the green ones. Further studies are needed to clarify the effects of water depth, water transparency, and various bacterial counts; these factors could be individual or interactive.

Luminous bacterial disease caused by Vibrio harveyi has devasted the shrimp industry. The use of different strains of tilapia and other fish species polycultured with shrimp cultured at a salinity of 24 ppt to control luminous bacteria has been reported. These species, however, could not tolerate salinities higher than 24 ppt. Alternative species/strains that could be used to control luminous bacteria at high salinities need to be investigated. Likewise, the effect of fish size on the growth of luminous bacteria is worth studying. Shrimp (Penaeus monodon Fabricius) were stocked in concrete tanks filled with 34 ppt cartridge filtered seawater. Tanks were stocked with two sizes (16 pcs, average body weight (ABW) = 55 g and 6 pcs ABW=250 g) of the red tilapia hybrid Oreochromis mossambicus Peters x O. niloticus Linnaeus, except for the tanks that served as the control. Luminous bacteria (V. harveyi) were inoculated into the tank water to a density of 104 Cfu mL-1. Significantly lower luminous bacterial count was observed in tanks with either of the two sizes of red tilapia hybrid compared with the control, after 5-7 d. Bacteria isolated from the fish feces, mucus and rearing water; and the fish feces and mucus themselves demonstrated anti-V. harveyi activity. Results showed that the red tilapia hybrid could be used to control luminous bacteria at salinities as high as 34 ppt and that the size of the fish did not affect its efficiency. The ability of the red tilapia hybrid to control the growth of the luminous bacteria V. harveyi is attributed to different factors such as the mucus, the feces and the bacteria associated with tilapia culture. Bacteria associated with the fish mucus and feces also contributed to the anti-V. harveyi activity of these biological substances.

Different aquaculture species such as finfishes and bivalves have been reported to control the luminous bacterial disease of shrimp, usually caused by Vibrio harveyi. The use of seaweeds in shrimp culture system has reportedly improved water quality and reduced the bacterial count. This study evaluated the potentials of two species of seaweeds, Gracilaria heteroclada (Ad Xia) and Kappaphycus striatum (Schnitz), to control the growth of V. harveyi. V. harveyi was inoculated into control tanks containing shrimps only and into treated tanks containing both shrimp and macroalgae. Luminous bacterial counts were monitored daily. From day 2 to day 6, luminous bacterial count in tanks with G. heteroclada was significantly lower than those in tanks with K. striatum. Bacteria isolated from the rearing water containing K. striatum and G. heteroclada and from the seaweed homogenized in sterile seawater showed anti-Vibrio harveyi activity. The seaweed homogenate per se also showed anti-luminous bacterial property. Presence of both G. heteroclada and K. striatum in shrimp culture system has the potential to control the growth of luminous bacteria. G. heteroclada was more efficient and sustainable, as shown by the lower luminous bacterial count and the higher percentage recovery of this macroalga after 11 d in experimental tanks.

SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department (AQD) pioneered fish disease work in the Philippines and developed diagnostic tools through research. Its Diagnostic Service Laboratory was established in the late 1970s to serve the budding aquaculture industry. Through the assistance of SEAFDEC AQD, this service has been replicated by both private and government agencies involved in shrimp aquaculture, thus, data on disease occurrence and prevalence are already available in databases in various forms. Laboratory analysis of hatchery-reared shrimp postlarvae has become an important tool for marketing using both physical and health attributes as gauges for acceptance or rejection of specific batches. Through the years, the diagnostic tools have evolved from mere wet mount microscopy to molecular diagnostic techniques by means of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect viruses. Despite this development, however, disease information is still patchy and difficult to use as decision-support tools because it remains in highly technical and in difficult to visualize information spreadsheets and tables. GIS is a tool that translates complex data in tables and spreadsheets into maps that provide visual displays of information in both spatial and temporal forms. It shows disease trends that are not presently seen and understood by all stakeholders. This paper will highlight the evolution of shrimp health monitoring as a marketing tool in the Philippines and how the application of GIS has helped in understanding disease patterns in the shrimp industry.

Shrimp mortality due to luminous bacteria has been a problem of the shrimp industry worldwide. Polyculture of shrimp with finfish, such as grouper, seabass, snapper, siganid, Tilapia hornorum, and the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT), could control the growth of luminous bacteria. One way to reduce adverse environmental impact and to reduce bacterial count is through the use of bivalves to filter pond effluents. This study investigated the effect of several bivalves on the growth of luminous bacteria in a simulated shrimp culture environment using concrete tanks. Tanks were stocked with shrimp at a biomass of 100 g/m3 and with brown mussel (158 pcs/m3), green mussel (137 pcs/m3), or oyster (376 pcs/m3). Growth of luminous bacteria decreased to below 101 cfu/ml in tanks with green mussel after 5 d, brown mussel after 16 d, and oyster after 17 d. Bivalves, such as green and brown mussels, and oyster, could be used as an alternative species for polyculture with shrimp to control disease due to luminous bacteria.

The efficiency of Tilapia hornorum to control luminous bacteria in a simulated shrimp farm environment has been reported. However, the effects of different factors such as feed input and the shrimp biomass were not taken into consideration. This study investigated the effect of feeding and increased shrimp biomass on the efficiency of tilapia to inhibit the growth of luminous bacteria. Results showed that feeding enhances the antibacterial activity or improves the efficiency of tilapia to inhibit the growth of luminous bacteria. However, the efficiency of tilapia at a biomass of 500 g/m3 is reduced if the shrimp biomass is greater than 80 g/m3. This explains the discrepancies in the results obtained in the use of tilapia to control luminous bacterial disease in shrimp ponds. The effect of starvation on the bacterial load of tilapia, grouper and milkfish feces and the amount of feces in the intestine was also investigated. Results showed that total bacterial and presumptive Vibrio count of fish feces decreased after 1 week of starvation except for the presumptive Vibrio count of grouper. The amount of feces in the intestine also decreased as starvation progressed. Moreover, bacteria isolated from the three species have antibacterial activity against the luminous bacteria Vibrio harveyi.

Studies have shown that the presence of Tilapia hornorum hybrid has antibacterial effect against luminous bacteria. The present study aims to determine the effect of different fish species such as grouper, milkfish and tilapia in polyculture with shrimp on the growth of luminous bacteria. Results showed that stocking of tilapia Oreochromis niloticus hybrid and grouper Epinephelus coioides at a biomass of 500 g/m3 efficiently inhibited the growth of luminous bacteria in shrimp (biomass = 80 g/m3) rearing water and positively affected shrimp survival. Results also showed that the presence of milkfish Chanos chanos at a biomass of 500 g/m3 did not inhibit the growth of luminous bacteria in shrimp (biomass = 80 g/m3) rearing water.

The antibacterial effect of the presence of Tilapia hornorum against luminous bacteria in shrimp culture has been reported. This study investigates how the presence of commercially valued marine species such as seabass, snapper and siganid affect the growth of luminous bacteria in shrimp culture water. Results showed that luminous bacterial count of water stocked with seabass, siganid and snapper are significantly lower than those without fish. Therefore this study has demonstrated that seabass, siganid and snapper are alternative species for culture with shrimp to control or inhibit the growth of luminous bacteria in shrimp ponds.