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Družbeni in tehnološki razvoj sta skupaj s procesom urbanizacije privedla do vse intenzivnejše izrabe prostora. Tradicionalni zemljiški katastrski sistemi, ki temeljijo na 2D-modelih prostora, so omejeni glede možnosti modeliranja prostorske opredelitve pravic, omejitev in odgovornosti (angl. rights, restrictions and responsibilities – RRR). To še posebej velja za grajeno okolje, kjer se pojavljajo potrebe po vertikalni razdelitvi prostora in 3D-opredelitvi nepremičninskih enot, na katere se nanašajo pravice, omejitve in odgovornosti. Razvoj sodobnih katastrskih sistemov je zato usmerjen v uvajanje 3Dpodatkovnih modelov in tehnologij, ki omogočajo učinkovito modeliranje nepremičninskih enot v tako kompleksnem prostoru. Doktorska disertacija je usmerjena v obravnavo tehničnih vidikov razvoja večnamenskih 3D-katastrskih sistemov za stavbe. V okviru naloge smo razvili zasnovo 3D-katastrskega podatkovnega modela, ki je skladen z mednarodnim standardom LADM za področje zemljiške administracije in povezljiv s standardi za prostorske podatke (IFC, CityGML, IndoorGML), s čimer želimo prispevati k širši uporabnosti 3D-katastrskih podatkov. To smo omogočili z opredelitvijo temeljne prostorske enote za modeliranje stavb v obliki notranjega prostora. Na temelju rezultatov analize obstoječih 2D-katastrskih podatkov o stavbah smo preučili možnosti njihove uporabe za 3Dmodeliranje skladno z razvitim konceptom. Razvili smo postopke za določitev topoloških odnosov med 3D-geometrijami notranjih prostorov ter opredelili grafe povezljivosti prostorov. Slednje je podatkovna osnova za izvedbo navigacije v notranjosti stavb in drugih lokacijskih storitev. Težavo pomanjkanja obstoječih 3D-katastrskih podatkov odpravljamo s proceduralnim modeliranjem, ki omogoča simulacijo 3D-katastrskih podatkov za večja območja. Na podlagi simuliranih podatkov smo izvedli in ovrednotili izbrane 3D-prostorske analize. Ugotovili smo, da tehnologije za obdelavo, shranjevanje in upravljanje 3D-prostorskih podatkov omogočajo izvedbo številnih rešitev, obenem pa izkazujejo potrebo po dodatnem razvoju in raziskavah, ki bi omogočile uporabo teh tehnologij v katastrskih sistemih. Z raziskavo smo tudi dokazali, da je mogoče ustrezno strukturirane 3D-katastrske podatke uporabiti na področjih zunaj domene zemljiške administracije. Rezultati raziskave tako prinašajo nova spoznanja, ki bodo lahko pomembno prispevala k razvoju večnamenskih 3D-katastrskih sistemov. Societal and technological development, together with rapid urbanisation, has contributed to the growing complexity of land use. Traditional land cadastral systems, based on 2D-models of real property units, have limited capabilities for modelling and spatial delineations of rights, restrictions, and responsibilities (RRR). Particularly in an urban environment, there is an increasing requirement for the vertical delineation of the space and 3D modelling of real property units to which RRRs are related. Therefore, the focus of modern cadastral systems is on the support of the 3D data models and technologies, which enable efficient modelling of complex RRR situations. This doctoral dissertation is focused on the technical aspects of multipurpose 3D cadastres and is limited to buildings. First, the concept of a multipurpose 3D cadastral model was developed, following the LADM international standard for land administration domain and linked to standards for spatial data (IFC, CityGML, IndoorGML). This linking enables the usage of 3D-cadastral data in other domains and is possible mainly due to the indoor spaces being the core element of the proposed 3D-cadastral data model. Based on the analysis of the existing 2D cadastral data on buildings, we assessed data usability for 3D modelling based on the developed concept. We developed the process for obtaining the indoor connectivity graph based on the extraction of topological relationships between 3D geometries of indoor spaces aiming to contribute to the multifunctionality of cadastral systems (e.g., for indoor navigation). The lack of 3D cadastral datasets is addressed by procedural modelling, which provides the simulation of large-scale 3D cadastral datasets. The simulated dataset allows the execution and evaluation of 3D spatial analyses. The presented research suggests that the available technologies for 3D spatial data processing, storage, and maintenance already exist and make possible the development of various solutions. However, much research is still needed to enable the operational introduction of 3D cadastre. Our research has also proved that properly structured 3D-cadastral data could be used for applications beyond the land administration domain. This doctoral thesis thus introduces new knowledge that will contribute to the ongoing developments of 3D cadastral systems.

This paper presents a 3D cadastral data model for buildings. A review of the relevant research shows that a common concept in the 3D cadastre domain is using the legal building unit, i.e. real property unit, as the core modelling unit. Alternatively, this study proposes using indoor space as a core modelling unit. The main reason is to enable the efficient integration of cadastral data with the data from other domains. On the conceptual level, the model is linked to the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM). The integration options are studied for three international standards: IFC, CityGML and IndoorGML.

The integration of 3D city models with Building Information Models (BIM), coined as GeoBIM, facilitates improved data support to several applications, e.g., 3D map updates, building permits issuing, detailed city analysis, infrastructure design, context-based building design, to name a few. To solve the integration, several issues need to be tackled and solved, i.e., harmonization of features, interoperability, format conversions, integration of procedures. The GeoBIM benchmark 2019, funded by ISPRS and EuroSDR, evaluated the state of implementation of tools addressing some of those issues. In particular, in the part of the benchmark described in this paper, the application of georeferencing to Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) models and making consistent conversions between 3D city models and BIM are investigated, considering the OGC CityGML and buildingSMART IFC as reference standards. In the benchmark, sample datasets in the two reference standards were provided. External volunteers were asked to describe and test georeferencing procedures for IFC models and conversion tools between CityGML and IFC. From the analysis of the delivered answers and processed datasets, it was possible to notice that while there are tools and procedures available to support georeferencing and data conversion, comprehensive definition of the requirements, clear rules to perform such two tasks, as well as solid technological solutions implementing them, are still lacking in functionalities. Those specific issues can be a sensible starting point for planning the next GeoBIM integration agendas.