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M. Römeris tapo Nuolatinio Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teismo teisėju ad hoc Klaipėdos krašto statuto aiškinimo byloje. Jis skyrė nemažai dėmesio šiai bylai savo dienoraščiuose. Juose teisininkas atskleidžia bylos nagrinėjimo detales. Medžiagos labai gausu, todėl šį tyrimą sudaro penkių straipsnių ciklas: Bylos kilmė ir rengimasis Teismui; Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme; Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme II; Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme III, Teismas, teisėjai, grįžus į Lietuvą. Visas straipsnių ciklas pavadintas Klaipėdos krašto statuto aiškinimo byla M. Römerio dienoraščiuose. Šiame straipsnyje pristatome pasakojimą apie individualias teisėjų notas dėl pirmųjų keturių valstybių signatarių skunde iškeltų klausimų. Raktažodžiai: M. Römeris, Klaipėdos kraštas, Statutas, Tarptautinis Teisingumo Teismas. M. Römeris became an ad hoc judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the case of interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory. He devoted a lot of pages to this case in his diaries. In them, the lawyer reveals the details of the trial. Due to the abundance of material, this study consists of a cycle of four articles: „The Origin of the Case and Preparation for the Court“; “In the Permanent Court of International Justice“; „In the Permanent Court of International Justice: Judgment“; „Court, Judges, after Returning to Lithuania“. The title of entire series of articles is „The Case of Interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory in the Diaries of M. Römeris“. In this article, we present a story about individual judges’ notes on the first four questions of the complaint, preliminary changes of opinion on the fifth and sixth questions of the complaint, and the final decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the case of the interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory. Keywords: M. Römeris, Klaipeda Region, Statute, Court of International Justice.

M. Römeris tapo Nuolatinio Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teismo teisėju ad hoc Klaipėdos krašto Statuto aiškinimo byloje. Šios bylos nagrinėjimui jis skyrė nemažai lapų savo dienoraščiuose. Juose teisininkas atskleidžia bylos nagrinėjimo detales. Dėl medžiagos gausos šį tyrimą sudaro keturių straipsnių ciklas: „Bylos kilmė ir rengimasis Teismui“, „Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme“, „Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme: sprendimas“, „Grįžus į Lietuvą, Teismas, teisėjai“. Visas straipsnių ciklas pavadintas „Klaipėdos krašto Statuto aiškinimo byla M. Römerio dienoraščiuose“. Šiame straipsnyje pateikiame preliminarias teisėjų nuomones dėl pagrindinio ir esminio valstybių signatarių skundo klausimo: ar turėjo teisę Klaipėdos krašto gubernatorius atšaukti iš pareigų Direktorijos pirmininką? Raktažodžiai: Römeris, konstitucinė teisė, dienoraščiai. M. Römeris became an ad hoc judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the case of interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory. He devoted a lot of pages to this case in his diaries. In them, the lawyer reveals the details of the trial. Due to the abundance of material, this study consists of a cycle of four articles: „The Origin of the Case and Preparation for the Court“; “In the Permanent Court of International Justice“; „In the Permanent Court of International Justice: Judgment“; „Court, Judges, after Returning to Lithuania“. The title of entire series of articles is „The Case of Interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory in the Diaries of M. Römeris“. In this article, we present the preliminary opinions of the judges regarding the main and essential question – whether the governor of the Memel Territory had the right to remove the chairman of the Directorate from his position. Key words: Römer, constitutional law, diaries.

Court-connected mediation designed to foster more sustainable dispute resolution practices in Lithuania was launched in 2005. The article is an elaboration on Lithuania’s experiences relating to court-connected mediation in the realm of civil justice. It investigates the problem of the so called “plateau”, when the number of mediated cases stops to grow, thus raising the question of what is the future of court-connected mediation in general. Authors present the main features of the Lithuanian court-connected mediation model and stages of its formation. The autors strive to provide a better understanding of the possible causes for the problem under consideration, as well as underlying assumptions associated with sustainable dispute resolution practices in courts. Next, the results of the original quantitative and qualitative empirical survey dedicated to the analyzed problem and performed by the authors in the beginning of 2021 are presented. The research is supplemented by data from Poland, which presents a fracture of the problems related to court-connected mediation in Eastern Europe. Poland’s perspective provides a glance into another legal system, which chose a different model of court-connected mediation without the direct involvement of judges as mediators. Still, the data from Poland shows the tendency of a steady influx of mediated cases. The article ends with a discussion, conclussions and recommendations on the causes and consequences of mediation stagnation in the process of developing a court-mediation and, possibly, mediation in general. The paper is dedicated to dispute resolution experts, both practitioners and scientists, who are interested in Eastern European experiences and problems associated with the development of mediatiaton.

Komentare analizuojami nuo 2021-ųjų metų sausio 1 dienos įsigalioję Civilinio Proceso Kodekso (toliau - CPK) pakeitimai, kurie apriboja kreditorių teisę pasirinkti antstolį, šitaip turintys spręsti dominuojančiųjų kreditorių bei dominuojančiųjų antstolių problemą. Autorius gilinasi į kreditorių teisės apribojimų pasirinkti antstolį galimas turtines pasekmes tiek kreditoriui, tiek skolininkui, tiek antstoliui. Apžvelgiamos atsakingojo skolinimo nuostatos bei jose įdiegti saugikliai, maksimaliai sumažinantys riziką asmenims pasiskolinti per dideles sumas, taip sukeliant sisteminę riziką rinkoje, tačiau tuo pačiu paliekamos adekvačios galimybės skolintis mažas pajamas gaunantiems asmenims. Apžvelgiama suinteresuotųjų šalių įtaka teisėkūros procese bei vertinami šalių pasirinkti argumentai savo pozicijoms pagrįsti. Visapusiškiems kreditorių interesams išreikšti įtraukiama Lietuvos kreditų valdymo įmonių asociacija, atstovaujanti 10 didžiausių šalies kreditų valdymo įmonių, Asociacijos INFOBALT narių grupė „FINTECH Lietuva“, vienijanti pagrindinius Lietuvos FINTECH bendruomenės dalyvius, Lietuvos bankų asociacija, Uždaroji akcinė bendrovė „Vilniaus vandenys“ ir Lietuvos draudikų asociacija. Ar šios organizacijos atstovauja visas kreditorių rūšis bei jų interesus, ar šių organizacijų minimos problemos yra aktualiausios jų atstovaujamiems kreditoriams ir todėl galimų problemų bei iššūkių sąrašas nėra baigtinis? Ar šių organizacijų nepritarimas yra pakankamas pagrindas įstatymui nekeisti, ar vis dėlto tai tėra vienos, status quo suinteresuotosios šalies argumentai? Konstituciniai teisėtų lūkesčių apsaugos, teisinio tikrumo, teisinio saugumo principai suponuoja valstybės pareigą užtikrinti teisinio reguliavimo tikrumą ir stabilumą, apsaugoti asmenų teises, gerbti teisėtus interesus ir teisėtus lūkesčius. Ar teisėtų lūkesčių apsauga apsiriboja kreditoriaus teisėmis? Ar kreditoriaus skolų portfelio padalijimas automatinės sistemos paskirtiems antstoliams neperkels skolininko sutaupomų kaštų priverstinio skolos išieškojimo atveju kreditoriui? Ar esant skirtingiems šalių teisėtiems lūkesčiams visais atvejais galimas šio principo suderinamumas? Ar tokia svarbi vertybė, kaip darbo santykių stabilumo principas, vertinamas tik trumpalaikiu laikotarpiu? Ar galimi trumpalaikiu laikotarpiu neigiami sisteminiai pokyčiai siekiant ateityje įtvirtinti stabilių darbo santykių principą? Ar turi ypatingos svarbos įstatymų leidėjo parinktas naujosios redakcijos įsigaliojimo datos pasirinkimas force majeure atveju? Straipsnyje įvertinamas įstatymo pokyčių poveikis įgyvendinant teisėtų lūkesčių ir darbo santykių stabilumo principus, aptariamas įstatymo įsigaliojimo laikotarpio pasirinkimas. Situacija apžvelgiama per teigiamas ir neigiamas skirtingų suinteresuotųjų šalių socialines, ekonomines ir teisines pasekmes. Taip pat vertinami keliami įstatymo pokyčių įgyvendinimo klausimai, susiję su asmens duomenų apsauga, automatinės sistemos galimybėmis administruojant skolininkų asmens duomenis bei atsakomybės Bendrojo duomenų apsaugos reglamento (ES) 2016/679 pažeidimų atveju. Nagrinėjami antstolių vykdomos veiklos našumo rodikliai, kreditoriaus teisė skųsti antstolio veiksmus bei teisinės galimybės pakeisti neefektyviai dirbantį antstolį. Straipsniu siekiama patikrinti prielaidą, kad kreditorių interesams bus padaryta neproporcingai didelė žala dėl pasunkėjusio priverstinio skolos išieškojimo bei sukeltos administracinio pobūdžio problemos administruojantiems stambius skolų portfelius, nesuteikiant skolininkams garantijų, kad skolos iš jų bus išieškotos greičiau bei ekonomiškiau. The article analyses the amendments to the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), which come into force on 1 January 2021 and which restrict the right of creditors to choose the bailiff, thus addressing the problem of dominant creditors and dominant bailiffs. The author examines the possible consequences of the restrictions on the right of creditors to choose a bailiff for the creditor, the debtor and the bailiff. It looks at responsible lending provisions and the safeguards they put in place to minimise the risk of individuals borrowing too much, thereby creating systemic risk in the market, while leaving adequate borrowing opportunities for low-income earners. It reviews the influence of stakeholders in the legislative process and assesses the arguments chosen by the parties to support their positions. To ensure that the interests of creditors are fully represented, the Lithuanian Association of Credit Management Companies, representing the 10 largest credit management companies in the country, the INFOBALT member group FINTECH Lithuania, which brings together the main players of the Lithuanian FINTECH community, the Association of Banks of Lithuania, the Private Limited Liability Company Vilnius Waters and the Association of Insurers of Lithuania are involved. Do these organisations represent all types of creditors and their interests, or are the problems mentioned by these organisations the most relevant for the creditors they represent and therefore the list of potential problems and challenges is not exhaustive? Is the opposition of these organisations a sufficient reason not to amend the law, or are they just arguments of one, status quo stakeholder? The constitutional principles of protection of legitimate expectations, legal certainty and legal security imply the obligation of the state to ensure the certainty and stability of legal regulation, to protect the rights of individuals, and to respect legitimate interests and legitimate expectations. Is the protection of legitimate expectations limited to the rights of the creditor? Does the division of the creditor's debt portfolio among the bailiffs appointed by the automated system not shift the cost savings of the debtor in the event of forced recovery of the debt to the creditor? Can this principle be reconciled in all cases where the legitimate expectations of the parties differ? Is a value as important as the principle of stability in employment relationships only valued in the short term? Are negative systemic changes in the short term possible in order to establish the principle of stable employment relations in the future? Is the legislator's choice of the date of entry into force of the new version in the event of force majeure of particular importance? The article assesses the impact of the changes in the law on the implementation of the principles of legitimate expectations and the stability of employment relations, and discusses the choice of the law's entry into force period. The situation is examined through the positive and negative social, economic and legal implications for different stakeholders. It also assesses the issues raised by the implementation of the changes to the law in relation to the protection of personal data, the possibilities of an automated system for the management of debtors' personal data, and liability in the event of breaches of the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679. It examines the performance indicators of bailiffs, the creditor's right to appeal against a bailiff's actions and the legal possibilities to replace an inefficient bailiff. The article seeks to test the assumption that the interests of creditors will be disproportionately harmed by the aggravation of enforced debt recovery and the administrative problems caused to those administering large debt portfolios, without providing debtors with guarantees that they will be recovered more quickly and economically.

Th is article presents a comparative analysis of the characteristics of advocacy in three countries with different level s of political and civil freedom . This analysis correlates each country’s freedom level with the characteristics of its ad vocacy activities . The analysis’s results are based on interviews of experts conducted from 2015 through 201 7 in un free Belarus, partly f ree Ukraine , and free Lithuania. The analysis focuses on the following advocacy characteristics: its scale ; its agents and targets; its goals ; the extent to which it sought to protect rights , freedoms , and other interests, its promotion of ideas; and its results .

The article examines the changes in the legal regulation of the composition of the special institution of judges provided for in Paragraph 5 of Article 112 of the Constitution, which is enshrined in the current Law on Courts from the establishment of this institution in 1994 until the last amendments made in 2019. In carrying out the tasks assigned to it by the Constitution, the Council of Judges acts as a counterweight to the President of the Republic in questions of the formation of the judicial corps and as one of the most important institutions of judicial self-government and fulfills a very important mission to protect the independence of the judiciary and judges. The article examines the ruling of the Constitutional Court of 9 May 2006, which determined the fundamental changes in the composition of the Council of Judges, in which it was clarified that only judges may be members of this institution. The authors make suggestions that, in their opinion, would create preconditions for improving the efficiency of the Council of Judges: to establish a ban on electing the Presidents of the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court of Lithuania, to reduce the excessive influence of judges of higher courts and chairmen of courts in the self-government of courts, to set proportional quotas for the representation of judges of all courts, to elect all elected members of the Council of Judges at the General Meeting of Judges and to include not only judges in the composition of the Council of Judges. Straipsnyje nagrinėjami Konstitucijos 112 straipsnio 5 dalyje numatytos specialios teisėjų institucijos, kuri šiuo metu galiojančiame Teismų įstatyme įtvirtinta Teisėjų tarybos pavadinimu, sudėties teisinio reguliavimo pokyčiai nuo pat šios institucijos įsteigimo 1994 metais iki paskutiniųjų 2019 metais padarytų pakeitimų. Įgyvendindama Konstitucijoje jai pavestas funkcijas Teisėjų taryba veikia kaip atsvara Respublikos Prezidentui formuojant teisėjų korpusą, o būdama viena svarbiausių teisminės valdžios savivaldos institucijų atlieka labai svarbią misiją saugodama teismų sistemos ir teisėjų nepriklausomumą. Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas esminius Teisėjų tarybos sudėties pokyčius nulėmęs Konstitucinio Teismo 2006 m. gegužės 9 d. nutarimas, kuriame buvo išaiškinta, kad šios institucijos nariais gali būti tik teisėjai. Autoriai pateikia siūlymus, kurie, jų manymu, sudarytų prielaidas gerinti Teisėjų tarybos veiklos veiksmingumą: įtvirtinti draudimą Teisėjų tarybos pirmininku rinkti Lietuvos Aukščiausiojo Teismo ir Lietuvos vyriausiojo administracinio teismo pirmininkus, sumažinti pernelyg didelę aukštesniųjų teismų teisėjų ir teismų pirmininkų įtaką teismų savivaldoje, nustatyti proporcingas visų teismų teisėjų atstovavimo kvotas, visus renkamus Teisėjų tarybos narius rinkti visuotiniame teisėjų susirinkime ir į Teisėjų tarybos sudėtį įtraukti ne tik teisėjus. W artykule omówiono zmiany w regulacjach prawnych, dotyczących składu szczególnej instytucji sędziowskiej, wskazanej w art. 112 ust. 5 Konstytucji, która w obowiązującej w chwili obecnej ustawie o sądach została określona jako Rada Sędziowska, od momentu jej utworzenia w 1994 r. do ostatnich zmian wprowadzonych w 2019 r. Realizując funkcje przypisane w Konstytucji, Rada Sędziowska stanowi przeciwwagę dla Prezydenta kraju, tworzącego korpus sędziowski, a jako jedna z najważniejszych instytucji samorządu sędziowskiego pełni bardzo ważną misję w ochronie niezawisłości sądownictwa i sędziów. W artykule przeanalizowano orzeczenie Sądu Konstytucyjnego z 9 maja 2006 r., warunkujące zasadnicze zmiany składu Rady Sędziowskiej, w którym to stwierdzono, że członkami tej instytucji mogą być wyłącznie sędziowie. Autorzy przedstawiają propozycje, które ich zdaniem mogłyby stanowić przesłanki do poprawy skuteczności działań Rady Sędziowskiej: określenie zakazu przewodniczącemu Rady Sędziowskiej mianowania prezesów Sądu Najwyższego Litwy i Naczelnego Sądu Administracyjnego Litwy, ograniczenie nadmiernego wpływu sędziów i prezesów sądów wyższej instancji na samorząd sędziowski, ustalenie proporcjonalnej reprezentacji sędziów sądów wszystkich instancji, wybór wszystkich mianowanych członków Rady Sędziowskiej na walnym zgromadzeniu sędziów oraz włączenie do składu Rady Sędziowskiej nie tylko sędziów.

Įprasta M. Römerį laikyti Lietuvos konstitucinės teisės kūrėju. Tačiau jo akademinė ir visuomeninė veikla liudija tai, kad jis buvo ir Lietuvos administracinės teisės pradininkas. M. Römeris profesionaliausiai ir nuodugniausiai domėjosi administracinės teisės klausimais Lietuvoje, ypač kuriant administracinio teismo koncepciją. Būtent šis mokslininkas parašė pirmąją monografiją lietuvių kalba „Administracinis teismas“, susijusią su administracinės teisės institutu (administracinių aktų teisėtumo kontrole). Maža to, administracinės teisės tematiką teisininkas plėtojo savo straipsniuose, kitose knygose, studijose, dienoraščiuose, Vyriausiojo Tribunolo praktikoje, taip pat rengdamas Valstybės Tarybos statutą, Administracinio teismo įstatymo projektą, rašydamas įstatymų projektams aiškinamuosius raštus, konsultuodamas Seimo komisiją, rengusią vėlesnius Administracinio teismo įstatymo projektus. Norėdamas dėstyti administracinę teisę, valstybinės teisės paskaitų metu analizavo administracinių aktų teisėtumo kontrolės institutą profesionaliau nei tai darė administracinės teisės lektoriai per administracinės teisės paskaitas. Kviesdamas Paryžiaus universiteto profesorius skaityti viešas paskaitas Lietuvos teisininkams apie Prancūzijos administracinę justiciją, norėdamas įsteigti Politikos mokslų mokyklą ir Administracinių mokslų institutą, siekdamas, kad Lietuvoje veiktų administracinis teismas ir trokšdamas būti jo teisėju. It is customary to consider M. Römeris as the creator of Lithuanian constitutional law. However, his academic and social activities testified to the fact that he was also a pioneer of Lithuanian administrative law. M. Römeris was most professionally and thoroughly interested in issues of administrative law in Lithuania, especially in developing the concept of an administrative court. The first monograph in Lithuanian language related to the institute of administrative law (control of the legality of administrative acts or judicial review), “The Administrative Court”, was written by this scholar. Not only that, but Römeris also developed the topic of administrative law in his articles, other books, studies, diaries, and the case-law of the Supreme Tribunal. Further, Römeris was also involved in drafting the Statute of the Council of State, drafting the Law on Administrative Courts, writing explanatory notes to draft laws, advising the Seimas Commission on drafting the Law on Administrative Court, teaching students about judicial review, inviting professors of the University of Paris to give public lectures on administrative justice to Lithuanian lawyers, trying to establish a School of Political Science and an Institute of Administrative Sciences, and finally desperately trying to establish an administrative court in Lithuania. The scientific foundation of this article consists of the material of five funds stored in the Manuscript Departments of the National Central State Archives of Lithuania, Martynas Mažvydas National Library, the Wróblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, and Vilnius University Library. The historical, comparative, analytical, descriptive, and document analysis methods were used in the research.

M. Römeris dienoraščiuose neretai rašydavo apie konstitucinės teisės dėstymą, literatūrą, paskaitų, seminarų ir kolokviumų metu su studentais gvildentas temas, santykį su studentais. Rašė ir apie savo monografijas bei akademinės veiklos kulminaciją žymintį veikalų ciklą „Valstybė ir jos konstitucinė teisė“. Apie konstitucinę teisę jis rašė nuo 1922 m. iki pat savo mirties. Čia matyti, kaip M. Römeris tobulėjo ir kaip pedagogas, ir kaip konstitucinės teisės profesorius. Be to, dienoraščiai atskleidžia Lietuvos konstitucinės teisės doktrinos ir dėstymo disciplinos pradžią ir raidą. In his diaries, M. Römer often wrote about the teaching of constitutional law, literature, topics discussed with students during lectures, seminars and colloquia, and the relationship with students. He also wrote about his monographs and the cycle of works marking the culmination of his academic activity „The State and its Constitutional Law“. He was writing about constitutional law from 1922 until his death. You can see how M. Römer developed both as an educator and as a professor of constitutional law. In addition, the diaries reveal the beginning and development of the doctrine and teaching discipline of Lithuanian constitutional law.

M. Römeris dienoraščiuose neretai rašydavo konstitucinės, administracinės, civilinės, baudžiamosios, tarptautinės teisės klausimais. Rašė jis nemažai ir apie teisėjo, advokato vaidmenį. Tačiau jo dienoraščių 34 tomas ypatingas tuo, kad čia daug lapų skirta Klaipėdos krašto Statuto aiškinimo bylai Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme. Tai visai nestebina, nes šios bylos nagrinėjime teisininkas dalyvavo tiesiogiai – jis atliko nacionalinio teisėjo, arba teisėjo ad hoc, vaidmenį. Aprašydamas bylos nagrinėjimą, autorius gvildeno ir tarptautinės, ir konstitucinės teisės klausimus, ir Nuolatinio Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teismo bylų nagrinėjimo procesą, teisėjo ad hoc vaidmenį, santykį su nuolatiniais Teismo teisėjais, aptarė teisėjų asmenybes, diskusijų, vykusių tarp teisėjų, ypatumus, psichologines priežastis teisėjams apsisprendžiant dėl kokio nors dalyko, išgyvenimus, susijusius su kova dėl Klaipėdos krašto. Šį tyrimą sudaro keturių straipsnių ciklas: „Bylos kilmė ir rengimasis Teismui“; „Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme“; „Nuolatiniame Tarptautinio Teisingumo Teisme: sprendimas“; „Grįžus į Lietuvą, Teismas, Teisėjai“. Visas straipsnių ciklas pavadintas „Klaipėdos krašto Statuto aiškinimo byla M. Römerio dienoraščiuose“. Raktažodžiai: M. Römeris, Klaipėdos kraštas, Statutas, Tarptautinis Teisingumo Teismas. In his diaries M. Römeris often wrote on constitutional, administrative, civil, criminal, and international law issues. He also wrote a lot about the role of a judge and a lawyer. However, volume 34 of his diaries is characterized by the fact that many pages are devoted to the case of the interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory at the Permanent Court of International Justice. This is not at all surprising, because the lawyer participated directly in the trial of this case – he played the role of a national judge (judge ad hoc). When describing the trial, the author discussed the issues of both international and constitutional law, the process of hearing cases at the Permanent Court of International Justice, the role of the judge ad hoc, the relationship with the permanent judges, discussed the personalities of the judges, the peculiarities of the discussions that took place between the judges, the psychological reasons when the judges decided on one or another, experiences related to the struggle for the Memel Territory. This study consists of a cycle of four articles: „The Origin of the Case and Preparation for the Court“; „In the Permanent Court of International Justice“; „In the Permanent Court of International Justice: Judgment“; „Court, Judges, after Returning to Lithuania“. The entire series of articles is entitled „The Case of the Interpretation of the Statute of the Memel Territory in the Diaries of M. Römeris“. Keywords: M. Römeris, Klaipeda Region, Statute, Court of International Justice.

Tyrimo tikslas – atskleisti prokurorų (n = 322), policijos pareigūnų (n = 113), advokatų (n = 85), teisėjų (n = 103) ir įvairaus amžiaus išorinės (visuomenės) grupės atstovų (n = 623) suvokto prokurorų ir prokuratūrų įvaizdžio (tam tikrų jo dėmenų) pobūdį, panašumus ir skirtumus, taip pat prokurorų ir prokuratūrų įvaizdžio, tyrimo dalyvių sukauptos patirties ir sociodemografinių charakteristikų sąsajas. Tyrimo dalyviai pildė mūsų sukurtą "Prokurorų ir prokuratūrų įvaizdžio" klausimyną. Gauti rezultatai atskleidė, kad dominuoja teigiami prokurorų ir prokuratūrų įvaizdžio (tam tikrų jo dėmenų) vertinimai. Teigiamai šį įvaizdį vertino visuomenės atstovai (išorinė grupė), prokurorai (vidinė grupė), taip pat policijos pareigūnai ir teisėjai (specifinių išorinių grupių atstovai). Išsiskyrė tik advokatų prokurorų ir prokuratūrų įvaizdžio vertinimai: paslaugų įvaizdį ir socialinį įvaizdį jie vertino neigiamai, o aplinkos įvaizdį – teigiamai. Prokurorai, palyginti su visų kitų grupių tyrimo dalyviais (visuomenės atstovais, policijos pareigūnais, advokatais ir teisėjais), daug geriau vertina prokurorų ir prokuratūrų paslaugų įvaizdį ir aplinkos įvaizdį, o socialinį įvaizdį – vienais atvejais daug geriau, kitais atvejais – panašiai. Su suvoktu prokurorų ir prokuratūrų įvaizdžiu yra susijusios šios tyrimo dalyvių charakteristikos: lytis, amžius, išsilavinimas, įgytos teisinės žinios, visuomenės atstovų ir jų artimųjų / pažįstamų susidūrimas su prokurorais / kreipimasis į prokuratūrą, domėjimasis teisinės tematikos informacija, taip pat darbas skirtinguose šalies miestuose. The aim of the study is to investigate the character, similarities and differences of the image (or its separate components) of public prosecutors and prosecutorial offices perceived by the prosecutors (n = 322), police officers (n = 113), attorneys (n = 85), judges (n = 103) and the general public representing different age groups (n = 623), as well as the relations among the image of prosecutors and prosecutorial offices, experience accumulated by participants, and sociodemographic characteristics. The participants completed the “Image of public prosecutors and prosecutorial offices” questionnaire developed by us. Findings showed that the image (or its separate components) of prosecutors and prosecutorial offices perceived by participants was mainly positive. Participants of the general public (external group), prosecutors (internal group), police officers and judges (specific external groups) gave positive appraisals of the image. Only the opinion of the attorneys was different: they negatively appraised the image of services and the social image, and positively – the image of the environment. The prosecutors, compared to all other participants (general public, police officers, attorneys, and judges), appraised the image of services and the image of environment much more favorably, the social image – sometimes much more favorably, and sometimes similarly to the other participants. Appraisals of the image of prosecutors and prosecutorial offices given by participants were related to various factors, such as gender, age, education, acquired knowledge of the law, family members’ or their acquaintances’ confrontations with prosecutors / appeals to prosecutorial offices, interest in legal information (given in the mass media), and different place of work.

Šiame straipsnyje vertinami ir lyginami praktiniai advokato dalyvavimo mediacijoje aspektai Lietuvoje, Didžiojoje Britanijoje, Vokietijoje ir Austrijoje. Vokietiją ir Austriją autorė pasirinko dėl to, kad tai kontinentinės teisės valstybės, turinčios vienas iš seniausių mediacijos tradicijų Europoje. Didžioji Britanija pasirinkta, nes įstatymų leidėjas Mediacijos direktyvą (Europos Parlamento ir Tarybos direktyva 2008/52/EB dėl tam tikrų mediacijos civilinėse ir komercinėse bylose aspektų) joje įgyvendino lakoniškai (mediacijos procesas detaliai nereglamentuojamas), tačiau mediacijos plėtrai šitai nesutrukdė. Be to, mediacija Didžiojoje Britanijoje turi itin gilias ir laisvosios rinkos pagrindu susiformavusias tradicijas. Įstatymų leidėjo įtaka mediacijai Didžiojoje Britanijoje yra minimali. Didžiojoje Britanijoje, Vokietijoje ir Austrijoje susiformavusios praktikos pavyzdžiais gali būti naudojamasi siekiant įvertinti mediacijos taikymo advokato veikloje sąlygas ir perspektyvas Lietuvoje, rasti naujų idėjų, suformuluoti racionalių pasiūlymų advokato veiklai, siekiant skatinti mediacijos instituto taikymą Lietuvoje. Tyrimo objektas – mediacijos taikymas advokato veikloje. Tyrimo tikslas – ištirti ir įvertinti mediacijos taikymo advokatų veikloje galimybes. Norint pasiekti tyrimo tikslą, keliami šie uždaviniai: 1. Ištirti, kodėl advokatai rekomenduoja mediaciją ar jos nerekomenduoja savo klientams. 2. Pateikti išvadas, rekomendacijas ir pasiūlymus. Mokslinės literatūros mediacijos tema gana daug, bet mokslinių darbų, nagrinėjančių mediacijos taikymą Lietuvoje praktikuojančių advokatų veikloje, dar labai mažai. Kompleksinio tyrimo, orientuoto išimtinai į advokato veiklą mediacijoje ir apimančio advokato galimus vaidmenis mediacijoje, jo elgesį skirtinguose mediacijos etapuose, teisinio reglamentavimo ypatumus, praktinius aspektus, su kuriais susiduria advokatas, dalyvaujantis mediacijoje, autorė pasigenda ne tik Lietuvoje, bet ir užsienyje. Šiame straipsnyje autorė analizuoja ir vertina atlikto tyrimo rezultatus, dėl kurių (ne)atsisakoma teisinėje veikloje mediacijos arba ji klientams (ne)rekomenduojama. Remiantis darbe nustatytomis aplinkybėmis daromos išvados ir teikiama pasiūlymų, kurie skatins advokatus dalyvauti mediacijoje, taip pat ir atitinkamas institucijas imtis reikiamų veiksmų, kad mediacija dažniau būtų taikoma advokato veikloje. Apklausos populiacija – 314 698 Lietuvoje, Didžiojoje Britanijoje, Vokietijoje ir Austrijoje praktikuojantys atsitiktinai atrinkti advokatai. Apklausos imtis nustatyta taikant Paniotto formulę ir imties skaičiuoklę. Reikėjo apklausti 267 respondentus. Kadangi į apklausos klausimus atsakė 292 advokatai, apklausoje dalyvavusių respondentų imtis yra reprezentatyvi. Apklausos patikimumas – 95 procentai. 6 procentų imties paklaidos dydis yra leistinas, nes ši apklausa skirta advokatų požiūriui į mediaciją išsiaiškinti. Imtyje dalyvavusių respondentų pasiskirstymas pagal šalis. Daugiausia apklausoje dalyvavusių respondentų buvo Vokietijoje praktikuojantys advokatai (70,89 proc., N = 207). Vokietijos advokatų susidomėjimą šia apklausa, autorės manymu, galima paaiškinti tuo, kad Vokietijoje jų yra kur kas daugiau nei kitose šalyse (2020 m. pradžioje Vokietijoje buvo net 166 375 advokatai (brak.de...), Austrijoje – 6 569 (rechtsanwaelte. at...), Lietuvoje – 2 130 (advokatura.lt...), o Didžiojoje Britanijoje – 139 624 (Statistikauswertung...)). Kitų šalių advokatų dalyvavimas apklausoje mažesnis, t. y. iš Lietuvos (10,62 proc., N = 31), Austrijos (9,59 proc., N = 28) ir Didžiosios Britanijos (8,90 proc., N = 26). Informacija iš respondentų buvo rinkta taikant kiekybinio tyrimo instrumentą, iš anksto parengtą klausimyną, kurį sudarė 45 klausimai, prie daugumos jų buvo numatytas atsakymo variantas – „kita, nurodykite“. Taip respondentams buvo suteikta galimybė pareikšti asmeninę nuomonę, jeigu ji nesutapo su autorės pasiūlytais variantais. Formuluojant klausimus buvo stengtasi gauti kuo daugiau informacijos apie mediacijos taikymą ar netaikymą advokato veikloje. Gauti duomenys buvo apdorojami programine įranga „LamaPoll“, atsakymai vertinti procentais ir skirstyti pagal respondentų socialines-demografines charakteristikas (darbo vietą, lytį, amžių, išsilavinimą, kvalifikaciją). Duomenys analizuoti dviem būdais: verčiant skaičiais ir procentais, kurie dar pavaizduoti grafiškai ir apdoroti statistiškai. The influence of lawyers on the development of mediation is one of the greatest, since in the event of a dispute the lawyers are the first to contact the parties to the dispute. Nevertheless, the practice of legal mediation belongs to a field that has not yet been empirically researched (Wambach-Schulz, 2018, p. 82). Today, both clients and customers of legal services place high demands on the lawyer; therefore it is necessary for the lawyer to strive for new competencies that would help to optimally examine each legal dispute and thus help them remain competitive in the legal market. In recent years, mediation has become increasingly important in Lithuania, but its application in the practice of lawyers is still insufficient. For this reason, and to research the experiences of the lawyers, the author conducted a survey in Lithuania, Austria, Germany and Great Britain (England and Wales). The results of the research showed that the reasons for the application of mediation in the activities of lawyers depends on different but interrelated factors. Complex research focused exclusively on the activities of a lawyer in mediation and covering the possible roles of a lawyer in mediation, as well as their behavior in different stages of mediation, the peculiarities of legal regulation, and practical aspects faced by a lawyer participating in mediation has not been conducted in Lithuania so far.

This paper aims to analyse the international consequences of private divorces, which are available in several European countries. Particular attention is drawn to the amendments suggested by the Lithuanian legislator, which intend to transfer certain functions of the courts to notaries. In particular, Lithuanian notaries would have competence in the dissolution of marriage provided there is mutual consent between spouses. The authors discuss how private divorces are regulated in different countries, whether the amendments suggested by the Lithuanian legislator would introduce a “private divorce” into Lithuanian law, and what the implications of private divorce are in private international law. In particular, the scope of application of the Brussels II bis Regulation is addressed. As yet, there is no consensus as to whether the Regulation applies to private divorces. However, the analysis in this paper shows that it would be beneficial to include such divorces in the above-mentioned Regulation. This would ensure a greater legal certainty for international couples.

Teismai nagrinėja ne tik baudžiamąsias, civilines bylas, bet ir administracines. Administracinė teisė, skirtingai nei civilinė ar baudžiamoji, nėra kodifikuota teisės šaka ir pasižymi didele gausa skirtingos teisinės galios ir kilmės teisės šaltinių. Taigi, administracinius ginčus nagrinėjantis teisėjas turi pasižymėti ypač giliomis administracinės teisės, viešojo administravimo žiniomis. Straipsnyje analizuojama Prancūzijos, Vokietijos, Čekijos, Slovakijos, Lenkijos ir Lietuvos patirtis, atrenkant pretendentus į teisėjus, nagrinėsiančius administracines bylas. Analizuojant kitų šalių patirtį, keliamas klausimas, ar teisinis reguliavimas Lietuvoje yra tinkamas, kai, įsteigus atskirą administracinių teismų sistemą, reikalavimai pretendentams į administracinius teismus niekuo nesiskiria nuo reikalavimų pretendentams į bendrosios kompetencijos teismus, tarp kurių net nėra privalomo reikalavimo turėti teisėkūros ir teisės taikymo patirties, o asmuo, besigilinantis ir besispecializuojantis administracinės teisės srityse ir neturintis teisės krypties socialinių mokslų daktaro laipsnio, negali iš karto pretenduoti į apygardos administracinį teismą, tik į apylinkės teismą, t. y. bendrosios kompetencijos teismą. Courts hear not only criminal and civil, but also administrative cases. The latter are dealt with in administrative disputes deriving from administrative legal relations. Administrative law, unlike civil or criminal law, is not a codified branch of law and it is characterized by a large number of sources of different legal force. Thus, a judge hearing administrative disputes must have particularly deep knowledge of administrative law. The article analyzes the experience of France, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Lithuania in selecting candidates for judges to work with administrative cases. Analyzing the experience of other countries, the question arises whether the legal regulation in Lithuania is appropriate, when after establishing a separate system of administrative courts, the requirements for applicants to administrative courts do not differ from the requirements for applicants to the courts of general jurisdiction. A person who specializes in administrative law but does not have a doctorate in social sciences in law cannot directly apply to the administrative court, only to the court of general jurisdiction. The article is dedicated to the 140th anniversary of the birth of Mykolas Romeris, one of the most distinguished Lithuanian lawyers of all time.

Naujieji šio amžiaus iššūkiai: globalizacija, sparčiais tempais vykstanti Ketvirtoji pramonės revoliucija, arši ekonominė konkurencija perauganti į prekybos karus, organizuotas nusikalstamumas, korupcija, terorizmas, kibernetiniai nusikaltimai didina reikalavimus viešajam administravimui. Valdžios institucijoms nuolat tenka spręsti vis sudėtingesnius ir didesnės apimties uždavinius siekiant institucijai iškeltų tikslų. Visa tai reikalauja daugialypės valstybės tarnautojų kompetencijos. Viena iš sėkmingo valstybės valdymo sąlygų yra tą funkciją vykdančių pareigūnų, valstybės tarnautojų profesionalumas, patirtis, kompetencija, asmeninės ir dalykinės savybės. Kaip atrinkti tinkamiausią pareigūną, valstybės tarnautoją konkrečioms užduotis vykdyti? Su šiuo iššūkiu susiduria atranką vykdantys asmenys. Pvz., atrankos komisija sudaroma įstaigos vadovo įsakymu. Viešoje erdvėje kartas nuo karto pasirodo informacija apie viešumo, skaidrumo stoką vykdant atranką. Tai savo ruožtu įtakoja visuomenės pasitikėjimo laipsnį atskiromis valdžios, valdymo ir teisminėmis institucijomis, gali sudaryti palankias sąlygas teisiniam nihilizmui suviešėti. Tai tik viena netinkamai organizuotų ir atliktų atrankų į valstybės tarnybą pasekmė. Daug pavojingesnis ir ženkliai mažiau pastebimas reiškinys yra atrankoje dalyvavusių pretendentų virsmas iš “kūrėjų” į “griovėjus”. Šio straipsnio autoriaus nuomone, tinkamas valstybės tarnybos funkcionavimas neatsiejamai yra susijęs su tinkamai organizuotu atrankos į valstybės tarnybą procesu. Šiame straipsnyje bus analizuojama atrankos organizavimas ir pretendentų vertinimas Lietuvos Respublikos prokuratūroje, siekiant identifikuoti tobulintinus elementus. The new challenges of this century are globalization, Fourth Industrial Revolution, fierce economic competition turning into trade wars, organized crime, corruption, terrorism, cybercrimes etc. factors increase the requirements for public administration. Public authorities are constantly faced with increasingly complex and voluminous tasks in order to achieve the goals set for the institution. It requires multiple competencies of civil servants. One of the conditions for successful state governance is the experience, competence and personal qualities of the persons performing these functions. How to select the most suitable civil servant for specific tasks? From time to time, information about the lack of publicity and transparency in the activities of the selection committee of candidates is published in the public space. It affects the degree of public trust in judicial institutions. According to the author of this article the proper functioning of the civil service is inextricably linked to the selection process of the civil servants. This article analyses the organization of selection procedure at the General Prosecutor's Office of the Republic of Lithuania and the evaluation of applicants in order to identify the elements in it to be improved.

Im November 1918 erlangte Polen die Unabhangigkeit zuruck. Dies war je- doch Beginn des Aufbaus der Grenzen des wiedergeborenen Staates. Bevor das Vilniuser Gebiet im Jahre 1922 an Polen angeschlossen wurde, wurde die Macht uber diese Region von 1919 bis 1920 durch die Polnische Armee und durch die polnische Verwaltung, die als Zivilverwaltung der ostlichen Gebiete tatig war, ausgeubt. In ihrem Rahmen wurde die polnische Gerichtsbarkeit geschaffen, deren Funktionieren in der angenommenen Form den bolschewistischen Einmarsch im Sommer 1920 unterbrach und beendete.

Lawyers mostly work individually and unobserved by supervisors, therefore, their employers want to make sure they gain sufficient competence to perform well. There is little previous research on the direct relationship between self-directed learning and individual work performance. Therefore, the goal of the paper is to analyze how self-directed learning influences individual work performance of lawyers in Lithuania. Our study is based on a quantitative research method, a self-reported questionnaire including 267 lawyers. The self-directed learning readiness (Guglielmino, adapted by Hashim, 2007) and individual task performance (Koopmans et al., 2012) scales were chosen. The correlation and regression analysis is performed to answer the question of the research. The survey revealed that self-directed learning dimensions explain up to 32.5 % of variance in individual work performance expressed by task performance. Determination, initiative, confidence and reflection in learning have statistically significant influence on individual work performan between self-directed learning and individual work performance of lawyers. Also, the topic is under-researched in the context of emerging economies. The paper is original as few if any previous studies analyze the relationship between self-directed learning and individual work performance of lawyers. Also, the topic is under-researched in the context of emerging economies.

A court administration striving to guarantee the independence and professionalism of the court and judges requires attention to judicial ethics. Judicial ethics as a system of professional values and as an institutional instrument of judiciary is an integral part of court administration which is based on the principle of self-regulation. The importance of court administration requires a scientific approach to its elements. Therefore, this article begins by providing analysis of the main objectives of judicial ethics and a comparative study on the European practices establishing judicial ethics. It also provides a systematic list of the basic principles of the conduct of judges that are established in different international standards and legal systems of different European countries. By analysing documents of different international institutions and codes of ethics of European countries, the author identifies a systematic structure and the fundamental starting point of modern judicial ethics. The methods of descriptive comparative analysis and observation of recent developments are dominant in this study. Reacting to the scientific problems and current needs of legal communities with regard to the enforcement of judicial ethics, the article presents approaches that could lead to increased effectiveness of ethics in the judiciary, as well as to the development of methods of enforcement of judicial ethics. The purpose of this article is not just to disclose the main international standards and regulations on judicial ethics in Europe, but also to make it practically valuable for developers of judicial ethics, taking into consideration the fact that recently many countries have been trying to reform and improve ethical systems in the judiciary. Given the limited scope of this article, other important elements of court administration and developing a comparative study of the content of judicial ethics and the jurisprudence of its implementation will be presented in future publications.

The definition of the word ‘bullying’ diverges based on the field of practice and research, in the absence of an agreed-upon overreaching definition. The latter would allow maximum flexibility in contributing to the variations in findings of various academic studies. Some argue that the lack of comprehensive definition is a factor of inaccuracy in estimating the prevalence of bullying itself. The ‘definition’ per se [of bullying] is in general recognized by the state law of the United States as one of the key components of any policy adopted by the states and local educational agencies, and which is required to be consistent with the definitions specified in state law. This article presents an overview of the definitions of bullying beyond the legal sphere in general as well as from a legal perspective. Special focus is dedicated to the state laws of the US as the main national jurisdiction that has adopted education law that contains explicit definition of bullying, as well as some of the aspects of defining bullying within the general and legal context of Lithuanian jurisdiction.

The objective of the paper is to present the current state of research on the silhouette and activity of Pedro Ruiz de Moros (Roysius), as well as on his work Decisiones Lituanicae, and put forward research postulates. The author presented in particular the results of research conducted by Tomasz Fijałkowski and Andrzej Kremer, and proposed directions in which these studies should be supplemented. One of the postulates is to take a closer look at Roysius as a Renaissance expert in Roman law. Another postulate is to conduct in-depth research into elements of Roman law in Decisiones, and then determine the influence of this work on judicial practice. Another area of research is the activity of Roysius in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in particular his role in the work on the Second Statute of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the development of the Statutes of the Samogitian chapter. Next, the postulate of publishing Decisiones’ translation into Polish was presented, and difficulties and doubts related to the translation were indicated.

Straipsnyje analizuojamas Pinsko pavieto taurininko Teodoro Radzevičiaus parengtas Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės bajoriškų teismų (žemės, pilies, ribų, trečiųjų ir Lietuvos Vyriausiojo Tribunolo) veiklos pagerinimo projektas. Jis buvo surašytas tarp 1784 ir 1790 m. Straipsnyje siekiama atskleisti pagrindines rankraščio autoriaus išskirtas ydingos bajoriškų teismų veiklos priežastis ir aptarti jo siūlymus, kurie turėjo šią padėtį ištaisyti. Radzevičiaus teigimu, blogą teismų funkcionavimą daugiausia lėmė šios priežastys: netinkama teisėjų skyrimo tvarka ir neužtikrinimas, kad teisėjai tinkamai atliktų savo pareigas, bei ydingas teisingumo vykdymo institucijų veiklos organizavimas (darbas pernelyg trumpose sesijose). Teismų apkrovimo bylomis problemą jis siūlė išspręsti didinant teismo sesijų skaičių (dėl žemės teismų), siaurinant teismo kompetenciją (perduodant dalį bylų kitiems teismams) ir steigiant papildomus teismus (dėl Lietuvos Vyriausiojo Tribunolo ir Dvasinio Tribunolo) bei išplečiant esamų teismų veiklos apimtį (dėl trečiųjų teismo). Svarbiausi Radzevičiaus siūlomos teismų reformos postulatai buvo šie: visuotinis teisėjų renkamumas, teisėjų kadencijų įvedimas, teisėjų atsakomybės ribų išplėtimas, kolegialus bylų nagrinėjimas. Dalis šių principų buvo realizuota Ketverių metų Seime. This article analyzes the project for the improvement of the activities of the nobility (land, castle, border, arbitral tribunal and the Supreme Tribunal of Lithuania) courts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania prepared by Teodor Rodziewicz, a nobleman of the Pinsk district, having the title of cup-bearer. The project was written between 1784 and 1790. The aim of the article is to reveal the main reasons for the flawed activities of the nobility courts, as singled out by the author of the manuscript, and to discuss his suggestions, which were aimed at remedying this situation. According to Rodziewicz, the poor functioning of the courts was mainly due to the following reasons: inadequate procedure for appointing judges and failure to ensure that judges perform their duties properly as well as the faulty organization of justice administering institutions (where sessions were too short). He proposed to solve the problem of the heavy workload of courts by increasing the number of court sessions (with regard to land courts), by limiting the jurisdiction of the court (transferring some cases to other courts) and by establishing additional courts (with regard to the Supreme Tribunal and the Spiritual Tribunal) or by expanding the scope of activities of the existing courts (with regard to arbitral tribunals). The most important postulates of the judicial reform proposed by T. Rodziewicz were the following: general election of judges, introduction of the fixed terms of office for judges, extension of the areas of responsibility of judges, and collegial examination of cases. Some of these principles were implemented in the Four-Year Sejm.

The basics of professional self-regulation are not enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, in ordinary law and legal doctrine, this professional self-regulation institution was determined thanks to the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania. One of professional self-regulation is the Lithuanian Bar Association, which is discussed in more detail in this paper. The subject of the analysis are the features of the legal status of the Bar Association in Lithuanian law and legal doctrine and its practical impact on legislative processes.

Straipsnio tikslas – analizuojant profesinės etikos principų (viešumo ir skaidrumo, taip pat konfidencialumo) turinį, išnagrinėti šių principų realizavimo ypatumus praktinėje teisėjo veikloje. Teisėjų skaidrumas ir viešumas yra suvokiamas ne tik kaip veiksmų viešinimas pateikiant sprendimų motyvus ir informacijos pateikimas visuomenei, bet ir kaip veiklos aiškumas, apimantis viešųjų ir privačių interesų konflikto vengimą Nagrinėti Lietuvos teisėjų etikos principai – viešumas, skaidrumas ir konfidencialumas – savo turiniu yra iš esmės aiškūs ir konkretūs teisinio reguliavimo kontekste. Nepaisant to, dėl 2014 metais įvykusių teisinio reguliavimo pokyčių teisėjo veiklos viešumas ir skaidrumas užtikrinamas bei toliau stiprinamas ne tik per teisėjo veiksmų ir sprendimų viešumą, bet ir per kiekvieno piliečio teisę dalyvauti teisėjo elgesio vertinime, taigi, ir per atskaitomybę. Be to, šie veiksniai stiprinami per siūlomus naujus pokyčius teismų savivaldos, įvairių komisijų veiklos teisinio reguliavimo srityje, taip pat per teisėjui būtinų asmenybės savybių aktualizavimą. Tai rodo itin ryškią praksiologinę teisėjų etikos nuostatų vystymo kryptį. This article presents an analysis of the content of the ethical principles of Lithuanian judges which have been previously under-examined in the analysis of the decisions of the Judicial Ethics and Discipline Commission (hereafter – JEDC). It aims to show how these principles of professional ethics – confidentiality, publicity, and transparency – are relevant and important in the practice of the judge. The events of recent years, due to the potentially unclear and biased activities of Lithuanian judges, make it possible to reexamine ethical issues with judges that have already been investigated. Therefore, examining and updating the professional ethics regulations of Lithuanian judges allows us to highlight several peculiarities. Firstly, this identifies the placement of human values in the activities of the judge: this activity is not only an expression of the legal provisions, but also an expression of common supreme human values. Secondly, the regulation of judges’ ethics allows us to assess the authority of courts and judges in society. Thirdly, analyzing the system of values allows for an integral assessment of whether modern contexts should not be opposed to the creation of a highly reliable representation of this profession and, in reality, a transparent, objective, fair judge’s activity allowing the public to have full confidence in the judiciary. Analysis of the concept of transparency has shown that transparency can be understood in both broad and narrow sense. The transparency and publicity of judges is not only perceived in terms of publicizing actions by providing reasons for decisions and providing information to the public, but is also represented by the clarity of activities which include avoiding conflicts between public and private interests. The results of the research showed that the principles of ethics of Lithuanian judges - publicity and transparency, confidentiality in their content - are clear and concrete in the context of legal regulation. However, analysis has shown that observance of these ethical principles has some peculiarities in practice, as the evaluation of the judge’s behavior includes other subjects. An examination of the decisions of the JEDC shows that there are cases of violations of these ethical principles in the activities of judges, indicating the viability of these ethical principles and their practical nature. However, the principle of transparency and publicity, as well as the principle of confidentiality, is only partly the subject of the activities of the JEDC. The Chief Official Ethics Commission is the main institution authorized to consider and resolve issues of coordination of public and private interests in the Republic of Lithuania. The State Security Department makes the decision to issue or refuse to issue permission to work with secret information.

While the most important point of using algorithms in judicial systems is named fairness, it is necessary to search for measures on how to map out regulatory frameworks for decision-making based on algorithms. This suggests that purely normative legal instruments might lose their power, thus authors in the perspective of future judicial power analyze some legal and ethical implications. As a point of bridging the gap between human and algorithmic decision-making is the identification of emerging issues in legal reasoning. Authors submit decomposition of using logical methods in the light of possible dissonance between artificial and human legal reasoning. The attention is paid not only on rational logical methods of legal reasoning but, onversely, discretionary and ethical dimensions. Furthermore, authors distinguish the importance of judicial power in legal reasoning, especially because of the so-called “hard cases”. Taking into account the rationalism, introduced by the rapid change of technology in legal discourse, authors seek for a counterweight to the moral justice side. Also, the distinction between a judge and mechanical reasoning indicates a demand for deploying new ethical requirements in this sphere. According to a rapidly growing role of technologies in the judicial work, the forecast is a grave decrease of judicial discretion. The latter aspect indicates introducing high legal ethics skills with frameworks of exercising abilities to reflect technological changes in judicial systems.

[full article and abstract in Lithuanian; abstract in English] The contributions of judges’ intuitive and rational information processing making decisions on criminal (robbery) cases were evaluated. Results are interpreted in the context of cognitive psychology and discussed in relation to the contemporary trends and future perspectives in the field of legal decsion-making. Summary The aim of the current study is to investigate the contributions of judges’ intuitive and rational information processing making decisions on criminal (robbery) cases. 98 judges working in various courts of Lithuania‘s general jurisdiction participated in this study. We asked participants to solve two vignettes. One vignette was designed to be compatible with intuitive information processing (i. e., anchor provided at the end of the vignette suggested a correct decision), while another counter-intuitive (i. e., anchor suggested incorrect decision). 51 judges were instructed to solve vignettes intuiti- vely under a limit time (intuitive group), 47 judges – rationally with no time constraints (rational group). Results of the current study revealed that intuitive group decided on higher sentences (i.e. was closer to an anchor), compared to rational group. Additonally, we found that judges’ in rational group rational information processing contributed to 53.19%, and intuitive information processing – to 8,51% of all decision-making process. Moreover, judges’ in intuitive group rational information processing contributed to 35.29%, and intuitive information processing – to 15,68% of all decision-making process. Results are interpreted in the context of cognitive psychology.

Teisės mokslinėje literatūroje nėra nagrinėta, koks yra Konstitucijos 74 ir 116 straipsnių, numatančių Aukščiausiojo Teismo teisėjo, Apeliacinio teismo teisėjo konstitucinę atsakomybę už priesaikos sulaužymą, ir Konstitucijos 115 straipsnio 5 punkto, numatančio teisėjo pašalinimą iš pareigų už poelgį, kuriuo pažeminamas teisėjo vardas, turinys bei jų santykis, todėl nurodytos Konstitucijos nuostatos gali būti aiškinamos nevienodai. Aukščiausiojo Teismo teisėjas, Apeliacinio teismo teisėjas, kuris savo poelgiu pažemino teisėjo vardą, gali būti pašalintas iš pareigų juos į pareigas paskyrusio subjekto (subjektų) sprendimais. Tačiau tais atvejais, kai poelgiu, kuriuo pažemintas teisėjo vardas, kartu yra sulaužoma priesaika, jis gali būti pašalintas iš pareigų apkaltos proceso tvarka. Konstitucija nenumato skirtingos (alternatyvios) Aukščiausiojo Teismo teisėjo, Apeliacinio teismo teisėjo atleidimo iš pareigų tvarkos ir atleidimo pasekmių, kai atleidimo iš pareigų pagrindas yra tas pats poelgis, kuriuo teisėjas ne tik pažemino teisėjo vardą, bet ir sulaužė priesaiką. Jeigu teisėjo vardą pažeminantis poelgis yra toks, kuriuo sulaužoma priesaika, turėtų būti taikomas Konstitucijos ne 115 straipsnio 5 punktas, o 116 straipsnio nuostatos, numatančios konstitucinę atsakomybę už priesaikos sulaužymą, pagal kurį taikoma apkaltos proceso tvarka. Yra teisinis pagrindas kreiptis į Konstitucinį Teismą su prašymu išaiškinti jo 2006 m. gegužės 9 d. nutarimo nuostatas. Under Article 74 and Article 116 of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, justice of the Supreme Court or a judge of the Court of Appeal may be removed from office for a gross violation of the Constitution, a breach of the oath, or when he/she is found to have committed a crime, according to the procedure for impeachment proceedings. Article 115 of the Constitution, which establishes the grounds for dismissing from office judges of the Lithuanian courts provides that a judge may be dismissed from office when his/her conduct discredits the name of judges (Item 5 of Article 115). The Constitution does not provide for a different (alternative) procedure for dismissing a justice of the Supreme Court or a judge of the Court of Appeal from office, or the consequences of his/ her dismissal from office where the dismissal is based on the same act by which the judge not only discredited the name of judges but also has breached the oath. The Constitution differentiates the grounds for removal from office of a justice of the Supreme Court or a judge of the Court of Appeal (one of such grounds being an act by which a justice/judge discredits the name of judges but does not breach the oath (Item 5 of Article 115), the other being an act by which a justice/judge not only discredits the name of judges but also breaches the oath (Article 116), and this determines different powers of the President of the Republic of Lithuania when deciding whether to dismiss (remove from office) a justice of the Supreme Court or a judge of the Court of Appeal. If an act discrediting the name of judges is such that breaches the oath, the provisions of Article 116 of the Constitution, providing for constitutional liability for a breach of the oath for which impeachment proceedings must be launched, should apply instead of Paragraph 5 of Article 115 thereof. If the President or justices of the Supreme Court or the President or judges of the Court of Appeal are removed from office “upon the entry into effect of court judgments convicting them”, the provisions of Article 116 of the Constitution that provide for impeachment for the commission of a crime should apply instead of Item 6 of Article 115 thereof.

rrengti This article analyses the judge's role as an impartial subject in criminal proceedings. Lithuania's legal system belongs to the Romano-Germanic system characterised by the inquisitorial model of criminal process. However, the prevailing constitutional doctrine that separates the procedural functions of criminal procedure and jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court obliges the judge to seek to establish the strict truth by giving him/her a procedural tool – namely, an obligation to be active and act impartially. To reduce the possible misuse of judicial discretion, the law establishes the factors that limit it and ensure impartiality, including imperative procedural rules, the obligation of motivation for a judgment, the instance system of courts, and the system of guarantees ensuring the judge's independence.

Straipsnyje analizuojamas Lietuvos prokurorų (2013 m. buvo apklausta 349, o 2017 m. – 274 prokurorai) dėl darbo specifikos patiriamas stresas, svarbiausi jo šaltiniai ir taikomos streso įveikos strategijos, taip pat streso, įveikos strategijų bei prokurorų socialinių ir demografinių charakteristikų sąsajos. Tyrimo dalyviai užpildė Prokurorų patiriamo streso (Valickas ir Vanagaite, 2015) ir Streso įveikos (Grakauskas ir Valickas, 2006; Valickas ir kt., 2010) klausimynus. 2013 ir 2017 metų rezultatai atskleidė panašias pagrindines prokurorų patiriamo streso ir jo įveikos tendencijas. Keturios situacijų grupės, susijusios su prokuroro darbo specifika, sukelia prokurorams vidutinio stiprumo stresą, tačiau daugiau kaip trečdalis apklaustų prokurorų trijose iš jų patyrė stiprų stresą. 2017 metų rezultatai atskleidė, kad prokurorų patiriamas stresas yra susijęs su miesto, kuriame jie dirba, dydžiu, amžiumi ir darbo stažu. 2017 metais (panašiai kaip ir 2013 m.) prokurorai, susidūrę su stresiniais įvykiais, dažniausiai taikė problemų sprendimo, rečiausiai – emocinės iškrovos strategiją, o jų taikomos įveikos strategijos buvo susijusios su lytimi, amžiumi ir miesto, kuriame jie dirba, dydžiu. Be to, kuo daugiau streso patiria prokurorai, tuo dažniau jie taiko įvairias streso įveikos strategijas (tiek 2013 m., tiek 2017 m.). Remiantis 2013 ir 2017 metų rezultatais galima teigti, kad patiriamas stresas yra pakankamai aktuali mūsų šalies prokurorų problema, kuriai turėtų būti skiriama daugiau dėmesio, taip pat nepalikti jos savieigai ir vien pačių prokurorų savipagalbai. This article analyzes work-related stress experienced by Lithuanian prosecutors (349 and 274 prosecutors participated in the study in 2013 in 2017, respectively), its main sources, and the coping strategies used by the prosecutors. It also delves into the relations of stress, coping strategies, and prosecutors’ sociodemographic characteristics. The participants completed the “Prosecutors’ experienced stress” questionnaire developed by us (Valickas and Vanagaite 2015) and the “Coping with stress” questionnaire developed by Valickas etc. (2006; 2010). The results obtained in 2013 and 2017 revealed similar main tendencies of stress experienced by prosecutors and their coping strategies. The four work-related situations in general caused moderate stress as experienced by prosecutors, but more than one third of prosecutors in three separate work-related situations experienced strong levels of stress. In 2017, the prosecutors’ experience of stress was related with the size of the city or town they were working in, their age, and work experience. After encountering stress, prosecutors are most likely to apply the problem solving coping strategy, and least likely – the emotional discharge coping strategy (both in 2013 and 2017). In 2017, the coping strategies were related with the sex, the age, and size of the city or town they were working in. Furthermore, the more stress prosecutors have to deal with, the more likely they apply various coping strategies (both in 2013 and 2017). The data gathered in 2013 and 2017 suggest that stress is a quite serious problem for Lithuanian prosecutors, so prosecution service leaders should devote more attention to it and not leave the matters of dealing with stress only to the self-assistance of prosecutors.

Originally, the members of cathedral chapters were organizationally and structurally divided into two categories: general prelates and canons. During the early stages of organization, prelatures were simultaneously dignities and capitular offices. After the Middle Ages, however, prelatures ceased to be offices and became titular dignities instead. Due to the evolution of the structure and the development of the organization of the chapters and the ways in which they functioned, it was necessary to appoint new officials who were independent of the particular dignities. From the moment that the college of prelates and canons was founded and established in Vilnius, they functioned and acted in spiritualibus and in temporalibus by following the example of the chapter in Cracow that had existed for centuries and adapted the practices to the local conditions of Vilnius. This influence is very clear in the selection and competencies of the officials chosen for the Cathedral Chapter of Vilnius. Among the officials chosen before the partition of Poland took place, those who had the most lasting effects were the capitular procuators, inspectors of capitular goods and property, chancellors, notaries, architivists, and deputies to the Lithuanian Tribunal.

Aksiologijoje analizuojant vertybių integralumą, pabrėžiama jų ugdomoji paskirtis įvairiose profesinėse srityse. Pastaruoju metu moksliniuose disputuose išryškinama dilema dėl praktinio vertybių realizavimo įvairiose srityse, taip pat ir viešojo administravimo sektoriuje. Teisėjo profesijai kaip tik būtinas aukštas vertybių integralumo lygmuo. Šiai profesijai keliami aukšti kvalifikaciniai reikalavimai, taip pat numatyta ypatinga kompetencija ir reikalavimai puoselėti pamatines vertybes. Atlikta mokslinių šaltinių analizė parodė, jog pasigendama išsamesnių mokslinių tyrimų, susijusių su praktine šių vertybių transformacija teisėjo veikloje; edukacinių įrankių, kurie galėtų padėti teisėjui konstruktyviai pasirengti realizuojant pamatines vertybes praktikoje, visuminio suvokimo ir konceptualizavimo. Todėl šiuo tyrimu siekiama išanalizuoti teisėjų mokymo diskursą, kaip pagrindinį edukacinį įrankį pasirengti praktiškai realizuoti vertybes teisėjo veikloje. Straipsnyje apžvelgiami Lietuvos teisėjų etikos mokymai bendrame pasaulio kontekste įvertinant ir profesinės etikos disciplinos svarbą Lietuvos aukštojo mokslo kontekste – teisės studijų programose. Taip pat analizuojant teisėjų etikos mokymų turinį ir ypatumus, išryškinama taikomosios etikos įtaka ruošiantis praktinei teisėjo veiklai, ir jau dirbant teisėju. In Axiology, when analyzing the integrity of values, their educational role in various professional fields is emphasized. Recently, the dilemma is highlighted in scientific disputes concerning the practical implementation of values. It is precisely the profession of judge which needs a high level of integrity of values. The high qualification requirements are raised for this profession, as well as special competence and requirements for fostering basic values are foreseen. The analysis of scientific sources revealed that there is a lack of practical understanding of the transformation of these values in the judge's work and the perception and conceptualization of educational tools that could help the judge to constructively prepare for the implementation of fundamental values in practice. Therefore, this research seeks to analyze the discourse of the training of Lithuanian judges as the main educational tool to prepare for the practical implementation of values in the work of the judge. The article consists of two parts. The first part provides an overview of the ethics training of Lithuanian judges in the overall context of the world by assessing the importance of the professional ethics discipline in the context of higher education - law study programs. The second part analyzes the content and peculiarities of ethics training of judges, provides insights on the future trends of this training. The results of the research showed that when highlighting the integrity of the values in the field of applied ethics, the content of the education of Lithuanian judges is to be improved. In the context of higher education, the concept of applied ethics is being implemented only in part by future lawyers (and hence future judges). In some Lithuanian law study programs there are no educational tools (or they are very weak) that could help to prepare a future lawyer for the practical implementation of values in the future work, while some legal study programs have formed the fundamental knowledge of professional ethics, making it possible to better prepare for the practical implementation of values. Therefore, a professional ethics discipline is offered in all lawyers' training programs. In the system for improving the competence of Lithuanian judges, permanent constructive tools for the integrity of values are introduced: the discourse of professional ethics training is bound to four career stages of the candidate (judge), which helps the judge to prepare for the practical implementation of values and to implement them: in order to pass the exam of the candidate to the judges; during the practical training at court; during the new appointment of a judge for the first time during the introductory training and during the subsequent career of a judge in the course of developing / strengthening the general competences. The topics of management, planning, organization of work are relevant for a complete segment of management elements.

Šis straipsnis yra platesnio tyrimo dalis. Straipsnyje analizuojami subjektų, vertinančių teisėjų profesinę etiką, įvairovė ir veiklos ypatumai. Teisėjų profesinės etikos aktualijos išryškinamos per platų šiuos klausimus vertinančių subjektų ratą, o vertinimo objektas – žinios apie etiką, asmeninės savybės, elgesys, motyvacija, elgesio atitiktis profesinės etikos normoms – kinta atsižvelgiant į atliekamų procedūrų (egzaminų laikymo, atrankos, nuolatinio veiklos vertinimo, drausminės atsakomybės taikymo ir pan.) ypatumus. Straipsnyje tipologiškai, atsižvelgiant į vertinimo objektą ir procedūras, išskiriamos keturios pagrindinės vertintojų grupės, sudarančios vertinimo sistemą: pirma – visuomenė; antra – teisininkų bendruomenė ir nevyriausybinės organizacijos, kaip teisėjų profesijos prestižo, jų veiklos ir elgesio vertintojos; trečia – komisijos: pretendentų į teisėjus egzaminų ir atrankos komisijos, taip pat nuolatinė teisėjų veiklos vertinimo komisija kaip teisėjų asmeninių savybių, elgesio ir motyvacijos pagrindinės vertintojos; ketvirta – teismų savivaldos – Teisėjų etikos ir drausmės komisija ir Teisėjų garbės teismas, taip pat Lietuvos Aukščiausiasis Teismas – kaip galutinai teisėjų drausminės atsakomybės klausimus sprendžiančios institucijos. Atlikta analizė rodo, kad teisėjų etikos klausimų sprendimų tendencijose ryški sąveika tarp globalizacijos ir individualizacijos sprendžiant teisėjų etikos klausimus, etikos procedūrų standartizavimas ir teisėjų profesijos prestižo puoselėjimas. Teisės aktų ir dokumentų analizės rezultatai parodė, jog teisėjų profesinės etikos klausimai reikšmingi visuose teisėjo karjeros etapuose, todėl būtinas teisėjų etikos vertinimo sistemos konceptualizavimas. The article presents the variety and activity characteristics of subjects involved in evaluating the professional ethics of judges, in the context of society welfare development. The issues of professional ethics of judges are highlighted through a wide range of subjects evaluating these questions. Whereas the evaluation object – knowledge of ethics, personal characteristics, behavior, motivation, and behavioral compliance with ethical standards – is changing and expanding with regard to the features of procedures (examinations, taking of the examinations, continuous performance evaluation, application of disciplinary liability etc.). The analysis shows that there is a connection between globalization and individualization in solving the ethical issues of judges, ethical procedures are standardized and the prestige of judicial profession is actively fostered. The analysis of legislature documents showed that the issues of professional ethics of judges are relevant in all stages of judge‘s career. The article typologically distinguishes, depending on the evaluation object and procedures, the four main groups of assessors: 1) the public; 2) legal community and non-governmental organizations as evaluators of prestige of the profession of judge, activity of judges and behavior of judges; 3) the Commisions: the Examination Commission of Candidates to Judicial Office and the Selection Commission of Candidates to Judicial Office, as well as the Permanent Commission for the Assessment of Activities of Judges such as: personal characteristics, behavior and motivation; 4) judicial self-government – the Judicial Ethics and Discipline Commission, Judicial Court of Honour as well as the Supreme Court of Lithuania – as the institutions which have final word in dealing with disciplinary matters of judges. Participation of these subjects in the evaluation of different stages of judicial ethics ensures the core of the professional value of judges‘ activities. The requirements for profession of judge in professional ethics are consistently consolidated in all processes and correlate with each other. The evaluation of society (as the evaluator of professional ethics of judge, in the context of the confidence in courts) is informal and subjective. For detailed and reasoned evaluation the complex instruments are necessary – the opinions which are consolidated, based on several criteria and derived from different sources, concerning the court activities and behavior of the judge. The evaluation of legal community can become the formal criteria of professional ethics of judge. Non-governmental organizations could represent judges at the Judicial Court of Honour, furthermore they could actively participate in evaluating issues of professional ethics. Whereas in the complex evaluation of commissions activities when evaluating the pretender (judge) we must take into account not only the quantitative activity indicators – number of cases, the nature of work, length of service, but also qualitative indicators – personal characteristics, behavior, motivation. The activity results of institutions solving the issues concerning the disciplinary responsibility of judges indicate the effectiveness of applied disciplinary measures, conditioned by training, education and self-development issues. The participation of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Lithuania in the system of evaluating professional ethics of judges is under doubt due to fact that this function is not naturally attributed to the court per se. Therefore, it is proposed to eliminate the Supreme Court from the circle of bodies competent to evaluate professional ethics of judges. Furthermore, it is advised that Judge Ethics and Disciplinary Commission might impose the disciplinary sanctions and the decisions made by Judge Ethics and Disciplinary Commission if appealed were brought for review to the Judicial Court of Honour.

Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės istorijoje XVI a. pelnytai vadinamas europinės teisės kodifikavimo amžiumi. Trijų Lietuvos Statutų (1529, 1566 ir 1588 m.) parengimas ir paskelbimas rodė ne tik valstybinį atsaką į visuomenės gyvenime vykstančias permainas ir kylančius poreikius, bet pirmiausia liudijo fenomenalų teisės kūrimą valstybėje. [...] Šiame straipsnyje bandyma aptarti vieną, neabejotinai LDK teisėkūros dalyviams priskirtiną profesinę grupę - viešuosius notarus ir jų veiklą XVI a. [...] This is a research of the notaries public as a corporate group. The research deals with the issues pertaining to the existence of a certain network of notaries public in the dioceses of Vilnius, Samogitia, and Lutsk in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and their correlation in the space of notaries public of the province of the archdiocese of Gniezno in the 16th century. The period under investigation is chronologically enframed by two dates. The first conditional date is 1501 which marks a stage in the maturity of the notarial system when the clergymen of the GDL started being awarded the honorary title - Count of the Sacred Palace of Lateran (comes apostolicus) accompanied by the right granted by the Pope to delegate notaries public (the Emperor could also award the title of the count of the palace). The said right was usually exercised by bishops, church officials, and notaries general. 1515 is considered an interim important date in the research as this was the year when the statutes of local dioceses of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were drawn up and the first wording of Vilnius cathedral chapter statutes, for the first time mentioning the participation of the notary public in the life of the chapter and his functions, was carried out. The second date is 1566 - the year when the Second Statute of Lithuania legitimized the activities of notaries public on the national level throughout the GDL. The said dates mark the dynamics and spread of the notarial system - introduced through the institution of the Church, the function of the notary public gradually entered the sovereign’s chancellery, noblemen, following the example of the sovereign, started using the services and notaries public gradually found their way to municipal institutions of towns and cities. The codification dates of the two separate structures of government - the church and secular authorities - can be equally applied to mark the developm ent stages of the notarial system as they indicate the process of notary public participation in both - the church and state government institutions. The utility register of notaries public (see the Annex) containing the list of all notaries public that were in operation in the territory of the GDL from the early 16th century to 1566 was employed as a means of visualization of the research object, namely the activities of notaries public. Based on the provisional data, there were 174 notaries public. The register offers references to notarial documents drawn up by the said persons as well as written sources pertaining to notarial activities which represent the directions and sphere of such activities; the inserted records witness functional dynamics of notaries public. Place-names pertaining to document issuance serve as indicators of the locations where the notaries public of the dioceses operated and reveal their mobility within a particular diocese. The topic-related sub-chapters o f the article include "Reception of the Notarial System in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Public Service and Private Relations, Was it Easy to Become a Notary Public, Service of Notaries Public in the Dioceses: Notaries Public of Cathedral Chapters, Consistories, and Curiae". Sporadic local and institutional activities could be named as the peculiarities of the institutional activities of notaries public. The activities of notaries public and their career steps offer a vivid picture of both vertical and horizontal dynamics of the notarial service. It can be stated without hesitation that notaries public were active players in the dissemination of written culture that contributed to the development of legal consciousness in the GDL society. The 1st half of the 16th century is the period of prosperity of the notarial system marked by the spread, dissemination, and establishment of notaries public in both church and secular institutions.

Since Lithuania’s independence in 1991, sixteen banks in the country have gone bankrupt. From 2011 to 2013 two banks—the fifth and sixth largest banks in the country— went bankrupt and three credit unions collapsed. One more credit union collapsed in 2014. One of the questions not yet posed in the context of this crisis of financial institutions in Lithuania is the question: “Where were the lawyers?” This article focuses on a comparative analysis of the regulation and practice of the legal profession in considering whether and how outside and inside bank and corporate lawyers can be effective gatekeepers, foreseeing, preventing, and mitigating such collapses. This comparative research concludes with propositions for changing legal profession regulations as well as lawyers’ and corporate officers’ education. Unauthenticated Download Date | 6/12/16 7:12 AM BALTIC JOURNAL OF LAW & POLITICS ISSN 2029-0454 VOLUME 7, NUMBER 2 2014 78

The traditional theories of judicial decision-making have their differences set around the importance of logical, rule-bound, and step-by-step reasoning. For legal formalists, judicial decision-making is predominantly a logical and rule-bound process, and ideally it is a product of syllogistic reasoning. For original legal realists and their contemporary counterparts, judicial decision-making is rarely a logical, step-by-step, and rule-bound process; more often than not, it is better epitomized by intuitive decisions. For a long time this question remained open. The purpose of this article is accordingly twofold. First, by relying on empirical research on decision-making, we argue that logical and rule-bound judicial decision-making, although possible in theory, is highly unlikely in practice. Second, by relying on indirect empirical evidence, we show that judges are very likely to possess unexceptional decision-making skills even when it comes to aspects of decision-making that have not been specifically tested on judges.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama viena iš supaprastintų, pastaruoju metu labai dažnai taikomų, baudžiamojo proceso formų1 – teismo baudžiamojo įsakymo priėmimo proceso (toliau ir – teismo baudžiamojo įsakymo procesas) institutas ir jo taikymo problemos. Dėmesys skiriamas prokuroro pareiškimo dėl proceso užbaigimo teismo baudžiamuoju įsakymu ir teismo baudžiamojo įsakymo turiniui, ypač siūlomos ir skiriamos bausmės motyvams. Taip pat straipsnyje analizuojama galimybė teismui perduoti baudžiamąją bylą prokurorui tyrimui papildyti, kai ji buvo gauta su prokuroro pareiškimu dėl teismo baudžiamojo įsakymo priėmimo. Be to, įvertinama šiuo metu susiklosčiusi teismų praktika teismo baudžiamojo įsakymo priėmimo proceso metu skiriant laisvės atėmimo bausmę ir keliamas klausimas dėl būtinumo teismo baudžiamąją įsakymą įteikti platesniam subjektų ratui, nei šiuo metu numatyta baudžiamojo proceso įstatyme. The author analyses the most significant challenges in applying Section 1 of Chapter 31 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which concerns penal order. Firstly, some doubts are highlighted about the regulation of articles 419 and 421 of this code. In the author’s opinion, there are some omissions in the current regulation: the law does not regulate the motivation of the suggested punishment by the prosecutor, and nor does it regulate the motivation of the imposed punishment in the penal order. Because of this, the regulation should be changed and the motivation should be a compulsory element of the penal order and the plea made by the prosecutor. The next part of the article concerns the specifics of applying Article 420 Part 1 in court practice, noting the possibility of returning a criminal case to the prosecutor for additional pretrial investigation. The author recognizes that court practice in this field is not permanent, so it is suggested that a correction should be made to the law and the possibility should be established of returning a criminal case to the prosecutor for additional pretrial investigation. Also, some doubts are highlighted about the possibility of imposing a sentence of imprisonment by adopting a penal order, especially when punishments are added. The author states that court practice is continuing in the wrong way, with a lot of examples in which courts impose the final punishment of imprisonment. In the author’s opinion, such practice does not meet the main aim of the summary process, so should be changed. The last challenge that the article discusses is the delivery of an adopted penal order. The current regulation states that a penal order must be delivered only to the accused. But there are some problems when the court does not find the residence of the accused, and in those circumstances the time validity of the penal order is unclear. Because of that, the penal order should be determined more persons, which should get the penal order.

Teisininko profesijos atstovų statusas visuomenėje – itin reikšmingas, reikalaujantis ne tik aukšto intelekto, puikaus teisinio išprusimo, veikimo visuomeninių interesų labui, bet ir etikos principus atitinkančio elgesio. Ne vien profesinis statusas savaime, bet ir nuostatos, įtvirtintos teisės aktuose, teisininkus įpareigoja laikytis etikos reikalavimų. Vis dėlto analizuojant profesinę teisininkų etiką neapsieinama be ribos tarp teisės ir moralės klausimo, neretai jis lieka atviras. Straipsnyje etikos požiūriu keliama teisėto profesionalaus teisininko elgesio pakankamumo abejonė, siekiama pateikti teisininko profesijos ir etikos santykio analizę. Tam, kad būtų paaiškinta teisinės etikos išskyrimo reikšmė, iš pradžių nagrinėjama etika bendrąja prasme, vėliau pateikiama profesinės etikos samprata. Taip norima atskleisti bendrąja prasme suprantamos etikos virsmą į teisinę. Kaip vieni svarbiausių veiksnių, darančių įtaką teisininkų profesinei etikai, nurodomos teisinės ir moralinės nuostatos, taip pat asmeninis ir visuomeninis interesai. Šių, dažnai vienas kitam prieštaraujančių, dėmenų susidūrimas vertinamas kaip galimybė atskleisti neetiško teisininkų elgesio motyvus ir pasekmes. Lawyer’s profession status in society – particularly significant, requiring not only high intelligence, deep legal education, operating in the interests of the public, but also the ethical behavior. Not only the professional status itself but also norms enshrined in the law obliges lawyers to follow the ethical rules. Analyzing the professional ethics of the lawyer it is important to be considered the boundary between the question of legality and morality which often remains open. From the ethical point of view, the article poses the question of the adequacy of the lawfulness of a lawyer’s behavior. The beginning of this article explains relations between lawyer’s profession and ethics. In order to justify the exclusion of legal ethics, initially analysing ethics in general and professional ethics. As one of the key factors of the lawyer professional ethics, identifying legal and moral, and personal and public interests intersections. These components are often conflicting between each other and this confrontation allows to explain unethical behavior motives and consequences.

Straipsnyje apžvelgiamos Lietuvoje nuo 1992 m. veikiančio nepriklausomo lotyniškojo tipo notariato nūdienos aktualijos, patirtis, iššūkiai bei perspektyvos Lietuvos teisės kontekste, taip pat atsižvelgiant į tarptautines notariato veiklos teisinio reglamentavimo tendencijas. Straipsnyje aptariamas daug diskusijų sukėlęs ir Europos Sąjungos Teisingumo Teismą pasiekęs pilietybės reikalavimas asmenims, norintiems tapti notarais, notarų atliekamų funkcijų įvairovė bei jų spektro pokyčiai skirtingose valstybėse ir laiko požiūriu, e. notaro koncepcija, notarinių paslaugų tarptautiškumo didėjimas bei naujausios Europos Sąjungos notarų veiklos teisinio reglamentavimo iniciatyvos, notariškai patvirtintų autentiškų dokumentų galiojimas. Article overlooks the topicality of today’s notariat – the experience, challenges and perspectives within the context of the Lithuanian law system, taking into account the tendencies of notaries legal regulations in the European Union and the rest of the world. The article also discusses the very controversial request that has reached the Court of Justice of the European Union, regarding the requirement of citizenship for the notary, the diversity of the notary’s functions, the conception of e-notary, the increase of notarial services at an international level and the latest initiatives of the European Union in the legal regulation of the activities of notaries. In 2012, when the independent Notariat of Lithuania celebrated its 20th anniversary, a staggering 86% of respondents fully trusted in notaries. However, the authority of notaries depends not only on the notaries themselves, but also on other government institutions, officials and politicians. The goal of the Latin Notariat, a member of which the Lithuanian Notariat has been since 1992, is to spread the main needs of a modern society – legal security, the reduction of judicial measures, transparency, etc. Through the delegated functions by the states for the notaries, the partnership of the public and private sectors is going through a rebirth. The state should constantly overlook the possibility to transmit new functions to the notaries, as they are authorized persons of the state. This would not only increase the availability of legal services to the society, but also save the budget by helping to terminate unnecessary administrational services with the state. Special attention and preparations must be appointed to the “cross border notary” system. The ability to act by overstepping legal systems of other states is not only one of the most relevant tasks of the modern notaries, but also a chance for the Notariat to take up an important place in the future society. One of the necessary assumptions for a successful notary functioning is the transfer of operative and reliable notary actions to the cyberspace. However, by all means e-notary should not mean that the quality and legal reliability of authentic instrument will decrease.

Straipsnyje apibendrinami psichologiniai intuityvaus problemų sprendimo teisėjo darbe tyrimai ir tuo pagrindu aptariamas jų poveikis teisėjo sprendimams pagrindinėse teisminio nagrinėjimo stadijose: teisminio tyrimo, teisminių diskusijų ir galutinio sprendimo priėmimo metu. Apibendrinant atitinkamų tyrimų rezultatus, parodomas įvairių intuityvių sprendimo priėmimo būdų poveikis teisėjo sprendimams kiekvienoje stadijoje. Aptariamos šių intuityvių sprendimo būdų įsisąmoninimo ir kontrolės perspektyvos. Parodoma, kad siekiant šio tikslo nepakanka vien tik informuoti teisėją ir skatinti jį priešintis neigiamam tokių reiškinių poveikiui, bet reikia specialaus psichologinio parengimo. Šiame kontekste parodoma, kad tikslinga ieškoti metodų padėti teisėjams objektyviau priimti sprendimus. Paper focuses upon cognitive-psychological phenomena leading judge’s decision making. According to general law presumptions, the judge tries the case in the most possible objective and rational way, considering all necessary data and law and in this way providing the only best decision. During the last four decades, psychological studies have given a good basis to cast these presumptions in doubt. It has been shown that the judge often takes his decisions using not exact, but intuitive decision algorithms (heuristics) and uses only a part of all data that would have been indispensable for a really perfect decision. Especially important is demonstration of a hidden way, in which such intuitive decision algorithms work. Such an algorithm functions without any control of consciousness and acts in a spontaneous way. This makes them a channel for judge’s uncontrolled subjectivity and brings diversity of judge’s decisions in identical cases. The paper reviews the main stages of the trial and discusses intuitive decision algorithms used on each of them. Their impact on judge’s decisions is discussed, as well. The principal intuitive decision algorithms used by judges have been discussed. The most important ones, most often and deeply affecting judge’s decisions are conformation bias, availability and anchoring algorithms. The impact of the use of these algorithms upon decisions of judges is demonstrated. The main consequences of the use of discussed intuitive decision algorithms are diversity of the ways and outcomes in decisions of different judges in identical situations. The analysis of psychological experiments carried out in different countries has shown that the effect of this factor on judging is considerable, which violates one of the most important legal principles – principle of uniformity, demanding similar decisions in similar cases. Especially, an important discovery is the dependence of the relative frequency of the use of intuitive algorithms on different psychological states of the judge’s mind, especially his mood. Based upon related publications, it is shown that the methods should be sought that could support judges in making more objective decisions and preventing them from any unwanted impact of heuristics algorithms. The obstacles and problems in arranging such a support are discussed in the paper. The most important of this seems to be the unconscious functioning of the intuitive algorithms – their impact is often of covered nature and any judge’s attempt to realize them meets problems. This explains failure of attempts to support judges by simple information on intuitive algorithms and their impact upon judge’s decisions.

The aim of this study was to evaluate judicial behavior congruence with procedural fairness requirements and its factors in civil cases. Behavior of 106 judges in 181 civil cases was evaluated. An analysis protocol for judicial behavior evaluation was created. 5 procedural fairness requirements were analyzed: ethicality, neutrality, opportunity to express opinion, elucidation, control of comprehension of rights. The results revealed that judicial behavior congruence with procedural fairness requirements is not satisfactory. Following factors of judicial behavior congruence with procedural fairness requirements were established: nature of the case, the participation of representatives of the parties at the hearing, the judge’s gender, legal regulation of procedural justice requirements.

The Factors affecting litigants’ perceived fairness of judicial behavior in general are analyzed. A 110-item questionnaire "Litigant’s perceived judicial behavior fairness" was created. 151 litigants were interviewed. The results showed that litigants’ perceptions of judicial behavior fairness (after the court proceedings, of all the judges in general) are subject to the following factors: the justice expectations, perceived judicial behavior fairness before the court proceedings, emotions and fairness, experienced during the court proceedings. It was also found that perceived judicial behavior fairness before and after the court proceedings as well as experienced fairness during the proceedings are related to the procedural status of the litigant, his / her education, and age.

In many jurisdictions middleand low-income individuals obtain only a relatively modest share of lawyers’ services. In a society ruled by law, every person should be able to expect key principles of justice to apply. Among the most important dimensions of a right to a fair trial is the right to equal access to an attorney. After all, the attorney is not merely a commercial actor but also represents the legal system. Access to an attorney is a key step in Unauthenticated Download Date | 10/8/16 5:43 AM BALTIC JOURNAL OF LAW & POLITICS ISSN 2029-0454 VOLUME 5, NUMBER 2 2012 44 providing justice in practice. Many states have developed programs of legal aid which aim at providing those who are in need of legal assistance but cannot afford to pay for legal services with a way to receive legal services. Scientific literature distinguishes various forms and instruments of legal aid: the court appointment of lawyers, free or low cost legal aid provided by public agencies and charitable and fraternal organizations, sometimes mixed with legal expenses insurance, contingency fee and the free services of lawyers who are serving pro bono publico. From the perspective of practicing attorneys, this article presents and compares existing systems of legal assistance in Lithuania and Germany, and their availability and effectiveness, in order to answer the question whether the social responsibility of attorneys and access to justice is obtained.

Authors of the present article analyze legislation of the European Union on provision of legal services in another EU member state. This article also examines case law of the Court of Justice of the European Communities, consequently revealing problems of applying the analyzed legislation in practice. The authors pay special attention to the analysis of the norms, provided in the Law on Advocacy of the Republic of Lithuania, which are related to establishment and provision of services of other EU member states in the Republic of Lithuania, and critically evaluate the compliance of certain norms of the Law to the requirements of the European Union legislation. Teisinė aplinka Europos sąjungoje: laisvas teisininkų ir teisinių paslaugų judėjimas Santrauka. Šiame straipsnyje autoriai analizuoja teisinę Europos Sąjungos aplinką ir jos poveikį teisinių paslaugų teikimui Bendrijos teritorijoje. Straipsnyje taip pat tiriamos Europos Bendrijų Teisingumo Teismo bylos, atskleidžiamos minėtų teisės aktų taikymo praktikoje problemos. Ypatingą dėmesį autoriai skiria Lietuvos Respublikos advokatūros įstatyme įtvirtintų normų, susijusių su kitų Europos Sąjungos valstybių narių advokatų kontorų įsteigimu ir paslaugų teikimu Lietuvos Respublikoje sąlygomis, analizei, kritiškai vertina kai kurių šio įstatymo nuostatų atitiktį Europos Sąjungos teisės aktų reikalavimams, siūlo konkrečius teisinės aplinkos tobulinimo būdus. Reikšminiai žodžiai: laisvas asmenų judėjimas, laisvas advokatų ir teisininkų judėjimas, Europos Sąjungos teisė, įsisteigimo ir paslaugų teikimo laisvė. First published online: 27 Mar 2009

The work of judges is dependent on generally accepted statements about the nature of their activity. The content of these statements is filled by judicial ideology, description of judicial activity which is constructed through a complex set of interactions between academic teachings, political rhetoric of the separation of powers, judicial self-perceptions, the views and expectations of the legal community, and the prevailing opinions of society as a whole on the proper role of the judiciary. All approaches to the judicial application of law, that is to the role of judges in interpreting and applying law, may be divided into three broad groups: 1) the Classical approach or the model of bound judicial decision-making; 2) the Realistic approach or the model of free judicial decision-making; and 3) the Socio-Economic approach or the model rational judicial decision-making. T he Classical approach denies that courts are the real authors of the law. It is proposed that judges are only the mouthpieces which give it expression. The model of bound judicial decision-making is opinion of the judicial process which explains the nature of the judicial activity as the application of enumerated preexisting standards, typically the rules contained in legislation. Legal theory based on this model strictly sets the line between the making of law, which is reserved exclusively to the legislature, and its application, which is assumed to be a process in which courts are supposed to apply that law mechanically to facts. The examples of such approach could be the role of the judges in the theories of legal positivism and legal normativism. Another group of theories, which could be described as the theories of the model of bound judicial decision-making, recognize that law is something that exists irrespective of the work of any person, institution or state. According to these theories law exists without respect of persons and just has to be found by a judge. The examples of these theories could be the doctrine of natural law, the Historical school of Jurisprudence and some sociological theories of law.

During the first year of existence of an independent Lithuanian government, Petras Leonas worked successfully as the minister for justice and internal affairs, framing the structures for national justice, administration and municipality, and organising their operations. His representation of the political middle ground seemed acceptable to most political groups in key positions, ranging from the president of the republic to the rector of Lithuanian University. However, he was not appointed or elected for such positions because of internal political disagreements, as well as the inherent modesty of Leonas himself. His authority was therefore used only in orders of special significance. Since Leonas was not seeking for career, his most important achievements were his long-time leadership at the Lithuanian Bar Association while at the same time framing, reinforcing and directing the Faculty of Law. He was a practising attorney since the 1905s, and although there was an interval in this when he escaped to Russia during the First World War, he returned to practising straight after resigning from the Lithuanian government in October 1919. Leonas was invited as a professor to the newly established Faculty of Law at Lithuanian University in 1922, where he started his academic career, becoming dean of the faculty and starting to lecture in the area of theoretical philosophy. At the same time, he became chairman of the Lithuanian Bar Association and practised law alongside this. Leonas was first among his colleagues to publish academic literature in the Lithuanian language to ease the learning process for his students, producing courses on the encyclopedia of law, the history of philosophy of law and other subjects that he lectured. Because practising law and his professorial duties were time-consuming, he dedicated his free time in the evenings and at weekends providing individuals with consultations for students in his own apartment. It is important to mention that Leonas’s broad field of practice was not focused on the selfish aim of earning more money, but was instead intended to bring more benefit to his country. He never avoided contributing money for charitable donations or working without payment.

The article is based on archival sources and historiographical analyzes the life and scientific-pedagogical activity Alexander Mickiewicz, one of the first professors of the University of St. Vladimir. There is an attempt to describe the one hand the problem of self-determination for a single person who represented thousands of people who due partitions late eighteenth century. was a part of the new state, the other to illustrate the then education and national policy of the Russian Empire regarding them.

1992 m. spalio 25 d. priimtoje Konstitucijoje generalinio prokuroro skyrimo ir atleidimo tvarka nebuvo nustatyta. Seimas 1992–2003 m. įstatymais daug kartų keitė generalinio prokuroro skyrimo ir atleidimo tvarką. Seimas 2003 m. kovo 30 d. pakeitė Konstitucijos 118 straipsnį bei 84 straipsnio 11 punktą ir nustatė, kad generalinį prokurorą skiria ir atleidžia Respublikos Prezidentas Seimo pritarimu. Seime 2015 m. spalio 15 d. įregistruotas Prokuratūros įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymo projektas, kuriame numatyta, kad „Generalinį prokurorą penkeriems metams Vyriausybės teikimu, Seimo pritarimu skiria ir iš pareigų atleidžia Respublikos Prezidentas. Generalinio prokuroro kandidatūras Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybei siūlo Lietuvos Aukščiausiojo Teismo pirmininkas ir Teisingumo ministras“. Šis įstatymo projektas prieštarauja Konstitucijai. The Constitution adopted on 25 October 1992 did not outline the processes for appointing and relieving the prosecutor general from duty. Between that year and 2003, the Seimas changed these procedures on more than one occasion. On 30 March 2003, the Seimas amended Article 118 of the Constitution and Item 11 of Article 84, stipulating that the prosecutor general was to be appointed and relieved from duty by the president of the Republic upon the assent of the Seimas. On 15 October 2015, the Draft Law Amending the Law on Prosecution Services was registered in the Seimas, stipulating that “the president of the Republic shall appoint and relieve the prosecutor general from duty upon submission by the Government and upon the assent of the Seimas. Candidatures for the prosecutor general shall be submitted to the Government of the Republic of Lithuania by the president of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Lithuania and by the minister of justice”. This draft law is in conflict with the Constitution.

Straipsnyje analizuojamas Lietuvos advokatų požiūris į taikų ginčų sprendimą ir mediaciją, vis plačiau įtvirtinamus mūsų valstybės teisės aktuose, teismų veikloje (teisminė mediacija), tačiau sunkiai atrandančius vietą advokatų praktikoje. Publikacijoje pateikiama advokato vaidmens mediacijoje teorinė analizė, nagrinėjamas advokato-mediatoriaus, advokato-neutralaus patarėjo bei advokato-šalies atstovo statusas mediacijos procese. Straipsnyje yra pristatomi 2015 m. atliktos Lietuvos advokatų apklausos apie advokatų taika užbaigiamus ginčus, jų žinias apie mediaciją, mediacijos naudojimą praktikoje bei nesinaudojimo mediacijos procedūra priežastis rezultatai. Tyrimo rezultatų pagrindu daromos išvados ir teikiami siūlymai dėl priemonių, kurios galėtų paskatinti advokatų palankesnio požiūrio į taikų ginčų sprendimą bei mediaciją formavimą, padaryti šiuos pažangius procesus natūralia bei prioritetine tvarka advokato klientui siūloma alternatyva ginčo sprendimui teisme. The article analyzes the attitide of Lithuanian lawyers (advocates) towards the peaceful settlement of disputes and mediation, which are embedded in Lithuanian law, are started to be applied in practice in Lithuanian courts (judicial mediation) since year 2005, but hardly find proper place in practice of Lithuanian lawyers. The publication contains brief theoretical analysis on role of a lawyer in mediation (lawyer-mediator, lawyer-neutral adviser and lawyer-party representative), their different functions. Also the necessity of additional education for lawyers in the field of alternative dispute resolution is highlighted. Afterwards the article presents a survey on attitide of Lithuanian advocates towards peaceful settlement of disputes and mediation. This survey was performed in 2015 at the General meeting of Lithuanian advocates. 354 advocates participated in the survey. The conducted survey examines issues of lawyers‘ knowledge about mediation, their use of mediation in practice and reasons for non-use. Based on the survey findings proposals for measures that could encourage the advocates to have more favorable attitude to the peaceful settlement of disputes and mediation, making these advanced processes natural and priority-order way of dispute resolution, were formulated.

The article analyses Lithuanian prosecutors’ (n = 349) work-related stress, its main sources and coping strategies, as well as the relations of stress, coping strategies and prosecutors’ socio-demographic characteristics. The participants completed the “Prosecutors’ experienced stress” questionnaire developed by us and the “Coping with stress” questionnaire developed by G. Valickas etc (2006, 2010). The obtained results have shown that different work-related situations caused moderate stress experienced by prosecutors. The prosecutors’ experience of stress is related with the size of city or town where they were working, division of the service (regional, district and Prosecutor General’s Office), as well as the dependence to different district services. After encountering with stress prosecutors are most likely to apply the problem solving coping strategy and least likely – emotional discharge coping strategy. The coping strategies are related with the sex, family status, size of city or town where they were working and the dependence to different district services. Furthermore, the more stress prosecutors have to deal with, the more likely they apply the various coping strategies (in that case in all work-related situations they are most likely to apply the emotional discharge and avoidance coping strategy). The gathered data suggests that stress is a sufficiently relevant (in separate work-related situations more than third part of prosecutors experience strong stress) and universal (not related with sex, age and previous work experience) topic for Lithuanian prosecutors, so prosecution service leaders should give more attention for it.

Although independence of judiciary has become a universal principle, but in practice it is still sometimes subject to challenges. As the mission of the judiciary is to ensure legitimacy by defending human rights from arbitrary acts of other branches of state power, there is inevitable tension between the judiciary and other branches of state government. The executive and the legislature may sometimes seek to influence the court in various ways – influencing the selection and appointment of judges, decreasing the remuneration and other social benefits of judges, expressing will to limit the powers of the judiciary, refusing to implement judicial decisions or ignoring them. These and other threats to independence of the judicial are likely to increase during the economic crisis when the society suffers from asperities and is full of tensions. In order to achieve economic stabilization, human rights and freedoms, and its most significant protection guarantee – the independence of the judiciary, are often pushed to the background. Therefore it is often claimed that one of the consequences of the global economic recession is a global human rights crisis. The subject of this article is the specific challenges of the economic crisis of 2088–2012 in Lithuania posed to the main elements of the principle of judicial independence: independence of individual judges and institutional independence of the judiciary. These challenges are mostly related to two types of tension: the tension between law and politics, which arose due to verification and outlawing by the judiciary of some decisions of political power on the measures to overcome the economic crisis, and the tension between law and society, which arose due to the fact that the society not always accepted (or even was encouraged not to accept) the decisions of the judiciary assessing the legality of the measures taken by political power to overcome the economic crisis. This article aims to assess the impact of the economic crisis to the independence of the judiciary. The research done in this article seeks to verify the hypothesis that the guarantees of judicial independence (and human right to judicial defense) are diminished during the economic recession. The research was conducted by applying analytical, systematic, comparative, descriptive and quantitative analysis research methods. This research led to the conclusion that economic crisis threatened both the said elements of the principle of independence of the judiciary. The reduction of the most important social guarantees of a judge (salary, pension), i.e. the concrete measures found incompatible with the Constitution, can be regarded as an encroachment to the (procedural) independence of the judge. Reduced funding for the courts, taking into account the increased workload of the courts, as well as the reduced social guarantees of judges, can be seen as disproportionate anti-crisis measure that threatened the institutional independence of the judiciary. In addition to these challenges, the Constitutional Court due to its special role in assessing the anti-crisis measures also had to face significantly increased criticism by the representatives of the political branch of state government, which could be seen as a certain pressure on the Constitutional Court in the decision making process. Apart from that, these economic crisis challenges to independence of the judiciary has certainly influenced the public’s perception of the entire judiciary system and reduced public confidence in the judiciary, hence this situation has posed an immense threat to the appearance of independence of the judiciary. However, it should be noted, that the economic crisis has also lead to some positive reforms in the judicial system, which might not have been taken in a different situation – the adoption of procedural and other changes in the legislation, which was intended to promote the efficiency of judicial procedure, as well as the reorganization of some district courts, which helped to optimize the resources of those courts, and the inclusion of the representatives from the society into the activities of the judiciary system. Thus the above mentioned hypothesis has been confirmed in part, i.e. apart from the typical threats to the judicial independence, the economic crisis also opened some opportunities to optimize the judiciary activities increasing efficiency of judicial defense.

Nuo 2008 m. Lietuvoje vyksta diskusijos dėl naujos Valstybės tarnybos organizavimo tobulinimo. 2015 m. Lietuvos Respublikos Seimui pateiktas naujos Valstybės tarnybos įstatymo redakcijos projektas, kuris numato iš esmės pakeisti daugelį Lietuvos valstybės tarnybos teisinio reglamentavimo aspektų. Vienas jų yra tarnautojų profesinių kompetencijų akcentavimas tarnautojų atrankoje, mokymuose ir karjeroje. Lietuva didele dalimi ir dėl Konstitucinio Teismo doktrinos išlaiko kontinentinėms administracinėms tradicijoms būdingus viešojo valdymo bruožus. Didelę dalį valstybės tarnautojų korpuso sudaro ir, tikėtina, ateityje sudarys teisininko kvalifikaciją turintys asmenys. Pastarųjų metų organizuojamų konkursų į valstybės tarnybą duomenys rodo, jog daugeliui pareigų užimti keliamas reikalavimas – teisininko kvalifikacija. Tokiomis sąlygomis aukštojo mokslo institucijos, vykdančios teisės studijų programas susiduria su iššūkiu adaptuotis prie naujų viešojo sektoriaus institucijų keliamų reikalavimų tarnautojams. Šiame straipsnyje konceptualizuojama iššūkių teisininko kvalifikaciją suteikiančioms studijoms Lietuvos valstybės tarnybos modernizavimo kontekste. Since 2008 Lithuanian political and administrative elites are engaged in debates over reforming the civil service of Lithuania. The result of these debates is the proposed new edition of the Law on Civil Service which was submitted for parliamentary approval in 2015. The bill envisages a fundamental review of many practices in the civil service on Lithuania. One of those is the shift in focus from stressing formal education to stressing competence evaluation in the process of civil servants selection, training and career. However, in most respects Lithuanian public administration remains firmly in the grips of the continental legal tradition and this means that large proportion of the civil service corps is made up of specialists with legal education. There are no reasons to assume that this would be changing, and therefore a need for a large number of lawyers in the civil service will remain. In parallel, the Lithuanian legal education is strictly regulated, primarily to cater to the need of the Judiciary branch of the government. And thus the changing nature of employment requirements in the Executive creates a divergence of labour market needs with regard to legal qualifications. And this consequently poses a series of challenges to higher education institutions training lawyers. In this article we conceptualize the challenges that are emerging in the context of the modernization of the Civil Service of Lithuania.

The article argues that judicial profession is multi-dimensional, and is constituted of at leats three components, i.e., formal qualification, constant training, and personal qualities that arise from one’s inner determination to see the profession as a calling. Three parts of this article have been dedicated to grounding that claim. The first part analyses the judicial qualification and judicial training peculiarities. The second part analyses judicial training in terms of its content and form and highlights its strengths and areas for improvement. Finally, the third part distinguishes the personal qualities that allow the judge to make impartial decisions, based on Max Weber’s ideal types of political leadership.The research showed that professional requirements for the judges are clearly defined in legal acts that provide a strong link between the judge’s professional requirements and continuous development of competence. The current Lithuanian judicial training system is made of two parts (i.e., the basic and additional training) that allow a consistent and systematic segmentation of the key and professional competences crucial for the judge’s activities. This allows the judge to both develop the competences essential in his or her activities and discretely develop his or her competence in the fields he or she finds it necessary. In terms of their form, judicial training programmes are defined under clear methodological guidelines, although some other important guidelines, such as objectives, goals and expectations, should be included. In terms of their content, the programmes are thorough, targeted to specific groups, and featuring continuous competence development. However, due to constant social, cultural and legal regulatory framework changes, they should be regularly updated. The judges’ impartiality in making lawful rulings arises not only from such sociology-wise universal ideas as good faith, devotion to one’s duty and independent decision making, the personal qualities common to the members of various occupational categories. A very important condition to judicial professionalism is one’s determination to see one’s activities as a call for dispensing justice. This leads to passion (devotion) for the cause of justice, and responsible administration of justice and as well as maintaining a proper distance between one’s personal opinions and beliefs and the participants of proceedings.