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This digest addresses two components in the moral and ethical preparation of teachers: identification and assessment of professional ethical concepts and structures in teacher education, and foundations and specific models for the preservice training of teachers of character. A teacher's first moral obligation is to provide excellent instruction. Teachers with high levels of moral professionalism have a deep obligation to help students learn and to demonstrate their moral professionalism. Teachers' professional ethical dispositions must now be addressed as part of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) accreditation process. Four components of ethical education include: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character. Each component is clearly defined, and educational goals, teaching strategies and assessment methods can be derived from those definitions. Professionals in education need objective knowledge about how children form a basic sense of right and wrong and how schools can reinforce appropriate development. An appropriate classroom environment can enhance students' positive dispositions if teachers receive proper training. The digest highlights three teacher education programs offering students the knowledge and professional skills to integrate character education into classroom practices. It concludes that moral and ethical issues, including character education, are slowly becoming part of teacher education programs, with deans and administrators of teacher education programs agreeing that core values can and should be taught in schools. (Contains 21 references). (SM)

Homework is a leading factor for improving academic performance among students who have the ability to work independently and adequate parental support to complete homework assignments. When parents are interested in children's homework, students are more likely to successfully complete their assignments. Teacher support is also necessary to significantly improve student achievement. Parent and teacher training is important in this process. Without training, some parents may be inadequately prepared to effectively equip children with skills to improve their overall academic outcomes. To improve parent involvement, teachers must be trained to design interactive homework (IH) assignments. When designing homework, teachers should consider elements that will facilitate: parent-child interactions, parent-child interest, students' reasoning, and students' self-management/self-directness. Teachers should also ensure that homework is suitable for diverse students and families. Because it is important for teachers to consider parents' and children's interests when designing interactive homework assignments, they should receive recommendations for gathering data regarding family backgrounds and interests using an Interest Inventory Checklist. Teachers must learn how to develop strategies to help students learn new vocabulary across the curriculum and how to formulate developmentally appropriate inference questions or word problems across the curriculum. Finally, training can help teachers learn to provide effective verbal and written directions for completing homework for parents and children. (Contains 24 references.) (SM)

Comprehensive school health education (CSHE) can help youth obtain the greatest benefits from education and become healthy and productive adults. One child out of four has an emotional, social, or physical health limitation that interferes with learning. Because schools have the capacity to reach 53 million students every year for 12 years, they are in a unique position to influence young people's physical, mental, and social well-being. Recent reports identify CSHE as a necessary component of a national infrastructure to support children's health. The capacity of CSHE to prevent or eliminate health problems among young people depends on the effectiveness of their teachers. This digest reviews the essential elements of preservice preparation of school-based health educators, focusing on the need for effective, standards-based health education teacher preparation. It describes seven professional standards for the preparation of health education teachers, and it cites research showing that effective curricula implemented by well-prepared teachers can reduce risky behaviors among youth. It concludes that teachers trained according to national standards can have a positive impact on children's health knowledge, skills, and behaviors by effectively delivering CSHE. (Contains 20 references.) (SM)

This addendum addresses questions of interest to state education policy makers, also elaborating on questions posed in the original work. Issues examined include: the extent to which subject knowledge contributes to teacher effectiveness; the extent to which knowledge of pedagogical theory, learning theory, or child development contribute significantly to teacher effectiveness; the extent to which high-quality, field-based experience prior to certification significantly contributes to teacher effectiveness; whether the accreditation of teacher preparation programs contributes significantly to the likelihood that graduates will be effective and remain in the classroom; and whether there are alternate route programs that graduate high percentages of effective teachers. It also offers summary statements on such issues as: new teacher characteristics that contribute to teacher effectiveness; the impact of 5-year versus 4-year teacher education programs on teacher effectiveness and retention; whether requiring state certification for new teachers contributes significantly to teacher effectiveness; and whether institutional warranties for new teachers contribute to the likelihood of graduates being effective teachers. Two appendixes present summaries of research not included in the addendum and nominated literature not included in the review. (SM)

Contemporary models of school reform acknowledge the principal as the passport to school success and the manager of an increasingly complex organization. This digest asserts that principals benefit from professional development that examines best practices, provides coaching support, encourages risk taking designed to improve student learning, cultivates team relationships, and provides quality time for reflection and renewal. Three different philosophical orientations guide the education and professional development of principals: traditional/scientific management, which exposes the principal to the research base on management and the behavioral sciences; craft, in which principals are trained by other experienced professionals; and reflective inquiry, in which the principal is encouraged to generate knowledge through a process of systematic inquiry. The principals' center model reflects the best of each approach, providing opportunities for principals to explore and reflect on current school and leadership topics. The digest notes that if the education change of the new millennium is to deliver on the promise of a quality education for all children, then a different understanding should guide principals' preparation and professional development. Embracing a social reconstructionist orientation toward principal preparation and development would encourage school leaders to create greater equality and social justice both in schools and in the larger community. (Contains 17 references.) (SM)

Research suggests that teacher quality is the single most important factor in determining student achievement and that the impact of a teacher is cumulative. Students with less exposure to qualified teachers are far less likely to achieve academic success than students with more exposure. Research also shows that teachers majoring in the subject areas taught have a more positive impact on student achievement than teachers majoring in out-of-field disciplines. Yet teacher certification in many states does not require subject area expertise. Some states and universities have seriously begun examining this issue, exploring initiatives to align student academic content standards with teacher licensure and involving liberal arts faculty in developing teacher training curricula. The National Council on Teacher Quality (NCTQ) is committed to improving teacher quality by promoting public awareness of scientifically based teacher quality strategies and market-based initiatives and encouraging reforms that lead to measurable gains in student achievement. NCTQ's efforts to fulfill its mission include: publishing materials that address teacher quality issues, maintaining an online teacher quality information clearinghouse, and helping states, districts, and colleges improve teacher quality. It is also working to develop a national teacher certification board, the American Board for Certification of Teacher Excellence. (Contains 11 references.) (SM)

This digest focuses on the advantages of distance learning (DL) in teacher preparation, explaining that teacher candidates need to be ready to embrace rapidly changing technologies throughout their careers. Teacher education programs can extend the traditional uses of DL by bringing campus-based courses into school-based classrooms, expanding clinical experiences to a variety of settings, and requiring teacher candidates to team teach with distant teachers to reach more students in diverse settings. The digest discusses linking theory with practice, linking teacher candidates with supervisors, and linking teacher candidates with peers, then focuses on challenges and guidelines to using DL in teacher preparation, including: carefully consider materials, aids, and strategies; immediately establish a rapport among all students and teachers; use a variety of techniques throughout the lesson; provide interactive opportunities with the instructor and other students at all sites; use feedback to maintain motivation and correct misconceptions and monitor student learning; use both summarization and closure techniques to continuously review key points of the lesson; frequently look into the camera to make eye contact with distance learners; use precise enunciation and articulation; and ensure coordination between sites. (Contains 18 references.) (SM)

This digest discusses the formal and informal processes of moral character development through sport in light of the types of programs that have shown to improve moral character, sportsmanship, and fair play, noting that such efforts involve combined lifelong formal and informal educational processes with three interrelated dimensions: knowing, valuing, and doing the right thing. Informal moral character development is highly influenced by the environment, as well as the mass media. Typical programs take advantage of teachable moments. Role modeling as an informal process of character education holds that leaders take responsibility for their actions and demonstrate good character. The formal process of character education is a direct and purposeful intent to affect character development, with individuals challenged to reflect upon moral issues, values, and principles in relationship to others and society, translating those reflections into good moral action. Formal character education can involve extensive study whereby athletes are challenged by peers, instructors, and themselves through reading, writing, discussion, and reflection on issues of honesty, fair play, responsibility, and decency toward others. Less time-intensive programs involve education through training videos. In contrast to informal programs, formal moral education programs are more difficult and time intensive to implement. (Contains 23 references.) (SM)

This digest examines considerations and strategies for selecting and retaining teacher mentors, suggesting that the degree to which mentors are meaningfully engaged in the mentoring process may have a significant impact on a program's success. Strategies for recruiting mentors range from opportunistic appointment to promoting self-nomination to tying mentorship status to a developmental career ladder. Various programs identify selection strategies based on their vision of the purposes of mentoring and factors they most wish to promote. One of the most influential criteria for mentor selection is their reputation as effective classroom teachers. There is little documentation of strategies utilized to retain mentors. Some appropriate strategies include recognizing mentor expertise and acknowledging and compensating mentors' contribution to the professional development of new teachers. It is important to appropriately match mentors to proteges. This matching can impact retention of both teachers and mentors. Ongoing support and training designed specifically for mentors often serves as an important mechanism for retaining mentors. Mentor compensation can include stipends paid directly to mentors; release time; allocations of funds to schools and districts to support associated implementation costs; additional classroom assistance and support; and financial support for and priority access to professional development. (Contains 22 references.) (SM)

Today's teachers shortage is most severe in urban districts, which struggle to recruit and retain new teachers and face persistent gaps between white, middle class teachers and diverse students. Teachers' lack of cultural and linguistic familiarity in such situations can be damaging to the goal of ensuring that all children achieve to their potential. The digest suggests that traditional recruitment strategies in teacher education alone are insufficient to meet this ongoing need. It recommends supporting a wide range of pipelines for those in the community who wish to become teachers. The digest examines: the concept of multiple entry points into teaching; the role of the P-16 council, which can help facilitate widespread knowledge of the multiple pathways available; support for multiple entry points; and supporting a diverse teaching workforce (a major strategy of the multiple entry points approach is the recruitment of incumbent workers, who are already committed to education and who tend to be minorities). The digest concludes that the design and delivery of preservice programs of the highest quality is essential, which means taking standards seriously, challenging programs to improve, and communicating clearly to all potential students, from every pipeline, what it means to be a good teacher for urban education. (Contains 26 references.) (SM)

This digest explains that burnout results from the chronic perception that one is unable to cope with daily life demands. Teachers must face classrooms full of students every day; negotiate potentially stressful interactions with parents, administrators, counselors, and other teachers; contend with relatively low pay and shrinking school budgets; and ensure students meet increasingly strict standards. This can result in a form of burnout at some point in their careers. The digest looks at the nature of the stress response, describes the development of the burnout construct, and examines several types of prevention that can be useful in helping teachers contend with an occupation that puts them at risk for burnout. Primary prevention includes organizational practices which allow teachers some control over their daily challenges. Secondary prevention focuses on early detection of problems before they emerge as full-blown disorders. Tertiary prevention involves ameliorating symptoms of burnout. The digest concludes that primary prevention is preferable, but all types can be effective. (Contains 19 references.) (SM)

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) amends and changes programs from the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. Although the main component of this bill is Title I, it also highlights teacher education quality. NCLB was accompanied, for fiscal year 2002, by the largest increase ever in federal education aid, targeting federal resources to support state and local school improvement efforts for children most at risk, with an emphasis on reading instruction. This Digest presents definitions used in Title IX: highly qualified teacher, beginning teacher, professional development, core academic subjects, and scientifically based research. It describes accountability, explaining that states receiving Title I aid through NCLB must develop yearly report cards documenting students' success in meeting NCLB achievement goals. States must also advise the federal government of the number of teachers who are not fully licensed, are teaching under an emergency credential or license waiver, and are not teaching in the field in which they were prepared and have demonstrated competence. Districts must offer parents information on the professional qualifications of classroom teachers. In November 2002, the Department of Education released its final regulations regarding NCLB, clarifying that states can integrate adequate yearly progress into their existing accountability systems and that all core subject teachers must be highly qualified by 2005-06. (SM)

This digest asserts that the question of coach preparation and training has become a priority issue for many schools and communities, though the research is limited. It examines reasons to have coach education; the scope of sport participation; the status of coach education and training in the United States; National standards for coach education; and the national standard/domains for coaching education. The National Standards for Athletic Coaches (NSAC) document contains 37 standards grouped into eight domains of knowledge and ability: injury prevention, care, and management; risk management; growth, development, and learning; training, conditioning, and nutrition; social/psychological aspects; skills, tactics, and strategies; teaching and administration, and professional preparation and development. The digest asserts that establishment and support of national standards for coach education provides the core for an integrated system of preparing qualified coaches. National standards assure the public that professional preparation meets the critical needs of its constituency. Established standards foster continued improvement in the content and delivery of professional curricula and in the selection, guidance, supervision, and assessment of the professional preparation of coaches. The establishment of NSAC provides a consistent framework from which coach educators and coaching practitioners may establish accountability and credibility in the coaching profession. (Contains 14 references.) (SM)

The population of school-aged English language learners (ELLs) has consistently and significantly increased over the past decade, transforming U.S. public schools, instruction, and teacher preparation. This digest discusses the need for increased numbers of teachers of ELLs and the particular linguistic and academic characteristics of ELLs. It focuses on: teacher supply and demand (the need for teachers of ELLs is particularly acute, and while percent of U.S. teachers have taught ELLs, less than 13 percent have received any training or professional development in the area); requirements for preparing teachers of ELLs (bilingual education, English as a Second Language, and mainstream education); and addressing the need (several organizations have developed standards to delineate what teachers of ELLs should know and be able to do, and these standards include such elements as proficiency in two languages, understanding of the impact of students' cultures on their learning, and assisting students in the development of their language abilities). The digest concludes that efforts are now being concentrated in the implementation of programs that incorporate the elements of effective preparation and professional development of teachers of ELLs. (Contains 14 references.) (SM)

This digest examines the preparation of classroom teachers in health, noting what teachers should know to effectively provide school health education. Most states and school districts require some health education. Health is generally taught by regular classroom teachers in elementary school, by classroom teachers with some health certification in middle school, and by teachers with health credentials in high school. Few states require coursework in health for prospective elementary teachers, while one half of the states require it for middle school teachers. Lack of teacher preparation is a major obstacle to implementing high quality school health education. Several factors hinder teacher preparation in health, including lack of time in the preservice curriculum and emphasis on standardized testing. Standards for teacher preparation in health education include: provide elementary teachers with strategies for infusing health instruction into the curriculum and for laying the groundwork for intensive middle school health education, and include content and process courses in health education within all teacher preparation programs. Competencies in health education recommended for elementary, middle, and special education teachers include the ability to incorporate health concepts into other curricular areas and to select and use valid and reliable sources of health information. (Contains 12 references.) (SM)

This digest examines the qualities that make paraeducators good candidates for teaching, particularly in diverse, urban schools. It discusses the critical aspects of programs that prepare paraeducators as classroom teachers. Paraeducators and other education support personnel (ESP) already have classroom experience, are more likely to live in the community where they work, often have significant experience working in public schools, and are often minority group members. When trained as teachers, they tend to stay in the classroom longer and achieve at higher levels than teachers from traditional teacher preparation programs. Barriers that paraeducators and other ESP face in achieving teacher certification include financial constraints, family considerations, time limitations, and institutional barriers. Key components of effective paraeducator-to-teacher programs include: strong collaboration between a local school district that employs paraeducators and a nearby university; a recruitment and selection process that gives an active role to partnering school districts; admissions criteria that blend traditional and nontraditional measures; teacher preparation curriculum that fits the needs of program participants; comprehensive academic and social support for participants; and tuition and other financial assistance. (Contains 18 references.) (SM)

This digest examines how technology can support multicultural education. Multicultural education represents an approach to education and the teaching-learning process that is grounded in the democratic ideals of justice and equality. Five critical dimensions of multicultural education are: content integration, knowledge construction, prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy, and empowering school culture and social structure. Content integration is intended to expand the curriculum by incorporating contributions of diverse cultures into traditional disciplines of study. Knowledge construction promotes critical literacy by making explicit the manners in which scholars and scientists contribute to their respective fields of study. Prejudice reduction is about eliminating all forms of bigotry and involves promoting healthy personal identity devoid of the tendency to need to denigrate those who differ from oneself. Equity pedagogy is about equalizing opportunities to learn. It involves incorporating various strategies and techniques that attend to learning styles and intelligence types. Multicultural education proponents contend that in order to provide high quality experiences for all students, many traditional aspects of schools will need to be reconfigured. This is referred to as empowering school culture and social structures. The digest explains how technology can be used to support each of these five dimensions. (Contains 20 references.) (SM)

This digest addresses the need for school-based sex education (SBSE), identifying recent curricula that have made a positive difference in the lives of U.S. youth. Many sexual behaviors place U.S. youth at great risk for a multitude of negative health outcomes. Every year, approximately 3 million adolescents acquire a sexually transmitted disease, with HIV infection and AIDS the greatest threat. Currently, SBSE programs are grounded in science and psychosocial theory and have been rigorously evaluated. Specific characteristics that make them effective include: giving a clear message about sexual activity and condom/contraceptive use and continually reinforcing that message, and incorporating behavioral goals, teaching methods, and materials that are appropriate to students' age, sexual experience, and culture. The abstinence-only-until-marriage movement gained momentum with a 1996 Congressional Act allocating $250 million over 5 years to fund state abstinence education programs. Few evaluations of abstinence-only programs have occurred, and the available studies are inconclusive. The digest concludes that schools and communities must acknowledge that most youth will be sexually active before high school graduation and must respond proactively by providing students with the comprehensive sex education curricula needed to prevent detrimental outcomes. (Contains 17 references.) (SM)

This report examines similarities and differences between teacher preparation systems in the United States and the United Kingdom. The first section discusses initiatives to renew and reform teacher education, highlighting four interrelated factors that provide insight into the reasons for conflicting demands for change (public expectations about education, the politicizing of teacher education, differing views about implementing change, and differing philosophies about teacher preparation). The second section discusses implementation of reform, highlighting government and educational policy. The third section describes teacher education's response to implementing reform. For example, educators in both countries are addressing reform issues from institutional and national perspectives. The fourth section describes similarities and differences in teacher education in the two countries. The countries are similar in the declining support for higher education, perceived loss of academic freedom, increased demand for teachers, distaste for high stakes testing and monitoring, and lack of recognition for improvement. The countries differ in school reform, centralization, funding and resources, and focused criticism. The fifth section examines trends for the future. Appended is a presentation by the Universities Council for the Education of Teachers, delivered at the 2000 annual meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. (Contains 45 references.) (SM)

This document is comprised of three papers by various authors, summarizing three different models of programs that successfully promote teacher quality that were introduced at the National Conference on Teacher Quality in January 2000, hosted by the U.S. Department of Education. The first program described, the Pathways to Teaching Program of Armstrong Atlantic State University, sponsored by the DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest, is designed to increase minority teacher recruitment by offering tuition and educational support to school district employees who want to become certified teachers. The second program described, the Urban Teaching Partnership Program, is a university-school district collaborative program in which students have a baccalaureate degree outside of education and pursue teacher certification in an intensive, 1-year, school-based program. The program prepares participants to work in high poverty, diverse, urban contexts while concomitantly preparing experienced teachers as mentors and as site-based teacher educators. The third program discussed ,the North Carolina State Model Clinical Teaching Program and Mentor Education Network, offers a long-term, school-based, collaborative model for teacher professional development. The model is designed around the concept of integrated learning, which uses experiential learning, selective role taking, and inquiry projects to increase the cognitive complexity of adult learners. (Contains 59 references.) (SM)

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was founded in 1987 in response to recommendations regarding the central role of teachers in educational quality. NBPTS establishes rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do; operates a national voluntary system to assess and certify teachers meeting these standards; and advances related education reforms to improve learning. The NBPTS advanced teacher certification system is voluntary (intended to demonstrate experienced teachers' advanced levels of teaching skills and abilities). Teachers are measured against a set of standards established by experienced teachers, teacher educators, and subject-matter experts. NBPTS work is founded on five core propositions (e.g., teachers are committed to students and learning and teachers are members of learning communities). Using these propositions, NBPTS developed content standards for each certification field. Currently, NBPTS has standards available in 26 fields. With each standards document as a foundation, NBPTS works closely with experienced teachers and assessment development experts to develop the performance based assessment that will be the basis for awarding NBPTS certification. This digest examines the development of assessments from 1991 to 2001. Through two recent studies, the positive impact of NBPTS certification on teachers is being documented. (SM)

During a review of the Higher Education Act (HEA), concern about the quality of teacher education emerged. As a result, Congress created a new teacher quality section in HEA known as Title II, which established grant programs for partnerships between K-12 schools and institutions of higher education and for states to improve teacher quality. It also established new accountability requirements for states and teacher preparation institutions. Congress mandated through Title II that any institutions preparing teachers that received funds through HEA, and any states that received HEA monies, submit annual reports on their efforts to improve teaching quality. These provisions gather information on, and rank within states, teacher preparation institutions. Strong sanctions are associated with Title II for institutions that do not submit reports or provide inaccurate information. States must compile all data submitted by colleges and universities and present information on licensure and certification. A consultative committee of individuals from states, higher education institutions, and the policy community was appointed to help the National Center for Education Statistics construct a reporting system. Reporting guidelines for use by institutions and states covered under HEA Title II were published in 2000. (SM)

Teacher mentoring programs have increased dramatically since the early 1980s as a vehicle to support and retain novice teachers. However, researchers and facilitators of mentoring programs are recognizing that mentors also derive substantial benefits from the mentoring experience. This digest examines research on how mentoring contributes to the ongoing professional development of experienced teachers. Benefits to mentors include improved professional competency, increased reflective practice, teacher renewal, enhanced self-esteem, improved teacher collaboration, and development of teacher leadership. Working with new teachers can also lead mentors to participate in university research projects or teacher research. The benefits of mentoring programs have important implications for funding decisions made by administrators and staff development personnel. Principals must understand that creating a structure that allows experienced teachers to work with novice teachers will ultimately benefit the students, and the overall organization will be stronger as a result of the increased capacity of teachers serving as mentors. Staff developers should embrace mentoring programs not only as a valuable resource for beginning teachers, but also as a growth-promoting experience for mentors. (Contains 23 references.) (SM)

This digest defines the concept of teacher leadership and examines the impact of teacher leadership on student achievement and equity within the schools. Most researchers agree that teacher leaders demonstrate expertise in their instruction and share that knowledge with colleagues; are consistently on a professional learning curve; practice reflection; engage in continuous action research; collaborate with peers, parents, and communities; become socially aware and politically involved; mentor new teachers; become more involved in preparing pre-service teachers; and are risk-takers who participate in school decisions. The ultimate measure of teacher leaders' contributions is the impact on student academic achievement. While some studies demonstrate no evidence supporting a relationship between teacher leadership and student achievement, others suggest that the bureaucracy of schools and systems, as well as the attitudes of educational policymakers, stifles the possibilities for teacher leaders to be effective as change agents. Some research suggests that unless issues of power, race, and class are addressed in school communities, the achievement levels of minority students will not be affected by teacher empowerment, noting that teacher leaders must learn to challenge the intellectual structures, definitions, and assumptions about people of color in Eurocentric institutions. (Contains 28 references.) (SM)

Though the benefits of working with families are documented, teacher education programs and school districts offer limited educational opportunities to new teachers. Until recently, most state certification departments did not require courses on family involvement in preservice education. During the late 1990s, the number of states requiring that teachers possess knowledge and skills related to parent and community involvement increased significantly. A recent survey of 96 teacher education programs found that 22 offered courses on parent involvement (developed for special education or early childhood teachers), though they were not required. Most programs interwove parent involvement issues into existing courses. Other studies show that early childhood and special education receive disproportionate amounts of parent involvement attention within university preparation and in school practice. Teachers consider working with parents important to children's positive school outcomes. If teachers do not receive such training during preservice education, opportunities to acquire it within the schools are limited. Three national hubs are the most promising sources for information, training, and support to new teachers, connecting schools, districts, and states into networks of sharing, development, and assessment. Legislation is needed that supports teacher education in meeting necessary requirements to work effectively with families across all 50 states. (SM)

Children may be exposed to trauma in their personal lives or at school. Teachers can prepare children to cope with trauma by understanding the nature of trauma, teaching skills for responding to emergencies, and learning how to mitigate the after-effects of trauma. Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has specific characteristics and circumstances, including situations perceived as life-threatening, outside the scope of normal life experiences, involving death, and during which children experience total loss of control. Survival skills include being able to follow directions, get help, mitigate specific emergencies, report circumstances, and say no firmly. Implementing survival skills requires recognizing right from wrong. Teachers can take steps to prepare children ahead of time and lessen the PTSD potential (teaching about trauma, teaching survival skills, debriefing after a trauma, and helping children regain control). Symptoms of PTSD include re-experiencing an event, avoiding reminders of the event, sleep disturbance, and continual thought pattern interruptions around the event. Diagnosing PTSD requires evaluation by trained mental health professionals. Teachers have a role in identifying and referring students. Teachers can help children suspected of PTSD by discouraging reliance on avoidance, talking about feelings, encouraging return to normal activities, and seeking professional help. (17 additional resources are listed.) (SM)

This study combined survey data with qualitative analysis to explore the preservice preparation of teachers of English language learners (ELLs). The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education disseminated surveys to member institutions and Web site users, examining the breadth and depth of preparation programs for such teachers. The National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education compared survey findings to its analysis of both state level bilingual education teacher licensure requirements and the content of courses required by institutions for degrees/licensure in bilingual education. Licensure and course requirements were categorized by areas of knowledge, revealing that while typically emphasizing the areas of pedagogy and cultural/linguistic diversity, linguistics received less emphasis at both state and institutional levels. There was great variance in how states mandated requirements for bilingual education teacher licensure, though state requirements did impact institutions' programming. Programs varied in the depth of their coverage of areas of knowledge, with bachelor's programs more likely to cover studies within an area of knowledge through a broad overview or survey course combining various topics within one course. Very few higher education institutions offered programs that specifically prepared bilingual education teachers. Even fewer required preparation for mainstream teacher regarding ELL education. (Contains 44 references.) (SM)

This third edition includes 136 annotations and abstracts on Professional Development Schools (PDSs). Most resources are published since 1997. Because earlier editions of this publication are now out of print, annotations of several works from the second edition were chosen for inclusion in the current edition. In many cases, the older entries still represent the most recent resources on topics that receive scarce coverage in the literature, for example, material on integrated services programs in PDS settings, PDSs in foreign countries, programs on family involvement, and technology use. In some cases, the format or type of document itself is fairly rare (e.g., manuals, handbooks, and electronic documents). Finally, certain topics have continuing significance, and good examples of older literature on these topics have been added or carried over from the second edition. Research reports and pieces that focus on PK-12 student learning in particular fall into this category. Annotations and abstracts appear alphabetically, many accompanied by icons to highlight certain topics or media. Four appendixes present Internet-based resources, newsletters, videos, and PDS publications from the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education and the ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. (SM)

Out-of-field teaching is a relatively unrecognized problem in schools. This digest reviews what research shows about the extent and causes of the problem. There is much disagreement about how much and which types of education and training teachers should receive and what credentialing requirements states should have. Analysts have used various measures of the issue, each resulting in different estimates of the extent of the problem. Considerable misunderstanding surrounds out-of-field teaching, especially regarding why so many teachers are teaching subjects for which they have little background. The source of out-of-field teaching generally lies in the lack of fit between teachers' fields of training and teaching assignments. Research suggests that teacher shortages are not a major contributor to the problem. A larger problem is how schools and teachers are managed. Principals have considerable discretion in staffing decisions and often find that giving teachers-out-of-field assignments is more convenient, less expensive, and less time consuming than the alternatives. Research shows that solving the problem of out-of-field teaching requires more than simply recruiting and training more candidates. It actually requires understanding how teachers are managed once on the job. (Contains 11 references.) (SM)

Technology alone will not improve educational quality, but when integrated with curriculum and instruction, it is a powerful tool. This digest reviews how educators can evaluate technology-based curriculum materials for use in classrooms. Authenticity is key to evaluating technology-based curriculum materials. To promote authenticity, learning assessment tools should pull students in desirable directions. Constructivist language permeates the technology literature. Technology can help teachers and students become co-learners who collaboratively construct knowledge. In evaluating curriculum materials, curriculum evaluators should prepare their own assessment criteria tailored to the planned instructional context. An important distinction in evaluating digital content is whether a product emphasizes open-ended exploration or drill-and-practice. When integrated effectively into the curriculum, digital content lets students seek and manipulate digital information in collaborative, creative, and engaging ways. Evaluators must consider the hardware and software requirements of the curriculum, whether teachers have ready access to them, and how much training teachers need. The primary goal of technology assessment is measuring student engagement as demonstrated by observable performances. Students are most likely to perform in desirable ways when engaged in realistic, worthwhile tasks. No curriculum can be effective without high quality, ongoing professional development. (Contains 15 references.) (SM)

The year-round calendar is an increasingly popular alternative to the traditional 9-month school calendar. This digest examines the benefits and challenges of teaching in year-round schools. Year-round schools may be on a single-track or multi-track schedule. Single-track schedules call for an instructional year of 180 days with short breaks interspersed throughout. Multi-track schedules stagger the instructional and vacation/intercession periods of each track throughout the entire year, so some students are receiving instruction while others are on vacation. Perceived benefits for teachers include: improved pay or work schedules; facilitation of educational improvements; and enhancement of the climate of professionalism. Perceived challenges for teachers include: organizational issues (e.g., sharing classrooms and leadership of extracurricular activities with other teachers); continuing education (finding time to schedule professional development); and conflicts in personal scheduling (e.g., teachers' children attending school on different calendars than their parents). Typically, the more teachers are exposed to year-round education, the more they like it, but the process of changing to such a schedule can create stress for them until they have time to adapt. (Contains 20 references.) (SM)

This paper examines the Bank Street College of Education's efforts to infuse technology into all aspects of graduate teacher education. Entitled Project EXPERT (Expanding Educational Repertoire through Technology), the effort called for graduate school faculty to learn to use technology in their own classrooms and to redesign their courses, students' supervised fieldwork experiences, and students' culminating projects to effectively use technology. Project goals were to prepare classroom teachers to use technology wisely with students and to provide leadership in the area of instructional technology and assessment. Project EXPERT was a whole-school model for technology integration in the context of curricular reform. This paper describes the development and first-year implementation of Project EXPERT, noting lessons learned (e.g., curriculum reform and technology integration seem ideally matched in theory, but can present problems in practice; online discussion forums were the first technology to interest faculty; and for many faculty, curricular reform was not originally a matter of changing teaching practice, but rather of including a wider set of perspectives in their courses, particularly an emphasis on inclusion, diversity, and use of the arts). Revisions made after the first year focused on faculty training, curricular redesign, and K-12 teacher involvement. (SM)

This Digest examines U.S. teacher supply and demand, including projections for the next 10 years. For the past 10 years, the supply of public elementary and secondary school teachers has grown. Currently, the number of teachers in the United States is 3.1 million, 2,666,034 of whom teach in public schools. The number is projected to increase by 1.1 percent annually to a total of 3.46 million by 2008. The projected demand for teachers may outpace the projected growth in the supply. Some researchers estimate that districts will have to hire 200,000 teachers annually over the next decade to keep pace with rising student enrollments and teacher retirements. Other researchers note that shortages are limited to particular regions and communities. Urban and poor communities will have the greatest need for teachers. Most teachers are female and white, while 35 percent of their students are minorities. From 1989-1995, enrollment in teacher education institutions increased by 5.5 percent. The largest increases occurred among Asian/Pacific and Hispanic Americans. Most students in teaching schools and colleges were white and female. The distribution of teachers across states and regions is uneven. Some states typically produce more teachers than they need while others need more than they produce. This maldistribution also exists within states, partly due to salary discrepancies. (Contains 8 references.) (SM)

Distance education is an alternative method for delivering academic course work to students unable to attend traditional campus-based classes. This Digest presents information on the many forms of distance education and keys to successful teaching with distance education. Distance education is a method of education in which the learner is physically separated from the teacher and the institution sponsoring the instruction. There must be a teacher, one or more students, and a course or curriculum that the teacher is capable of teaching and the student wants to learn. Originally, distance education involved teachers traveling to remote sites to teach a class or teachers corresponding with students. Technology has raised the quality of individualized distance instruction. There are video and audio models of distance education that involve broadcast and cable television, satellites, microwaves, fiber optics, and audio graphics. The linking of computer technology via the Internet or CD-ROM with television transmission potentially provides a new dimension to distance education. Distance education can be used for some aspects of most disciplines. It dictates changes in behavior for both teachers and students. Five critical elements for successful distance teaching include: instructor enthusiasm, organization, strong commitment to student interaction, familiarity with technology used in the class, and critical support personnel. (Contains 8 references.) (SM)

As the world increasingly becomes a global society, education is viewed as an important avenue for national development. New teacher preparation and inservice teacher professional development is key to educational improvement. This Digest examines teacher education goals, candidate selection, content of teacher education programs, and student teaching or clinical preparation in selected countries. Many countries identify quality teachers as the goal of their teacher education programs. The social mission of teacher education is quite broad across countries. Countries vary in how they create standards for teacher education. Qualifications for entering teacher education programs vary considerably. Most countries have multiple entry points into teaching. Traditionally, teachers have been prepared in normal schools; however, many normal schools have evolved into multipurpose, 4-year colleges. Trends show teacher training being embedded in undergraduate degree programs, the requiring of undergraduate degrees for all teachers, and extending preparation requirements into graduate-level programs. Though there exists some variation in teacher education programs' curriculum content, most offer some combination of coursework in subject matter, teaching methods and materials, child growth and development, and other education courses. Student teaching or strong clinical practice is seen as essential in teacher preparation. The duration of such an experience varies widely and is influenced by teaching level and the nature of the teacher education program. (SM)

New U.S. teachers are challenged to educate diverse learners in an increasingly complex knowledge-based, technology-oriented society. Often, new teachers receive little support from colleagues or professional development. Many low-wealth urban districts with acute shortages are turning toward beginning teacher induction programs to keep new teachers from leaving. Research documents the value of teacher induction programs and describes multiple prototypes for implementation. Benefits include reduced attrition rates among new teachers and improved teaching capabilities. The number of state and local districts that have created programs for beginning teachers has grown substantially since the early 1980s, though programs and funding levels vary strikingly among states. Program structure and the underlying conceptualization of teaching differ among districts. Induction programs increasingly provide assistance to new teachers by assigning them to mentors. Successful mentor programs depend upon the quality of training afforded the mentors. There is limited agreement about what new teachers should know and be able to do. A consensus is growing about beginning teachers needing to meet standards for practice that will attest to their grasp of essential skills, knowledge, and dispositions. Many school systems work with colleges to create learner-centered environments such as Professional Development Schools. This model of teacher induction has the potential to influence both members of the mentoring relationship. (Contains 20 references.) (SM)

In some classrooms, student voices are barely heard while teachers monopolize classroom talk, and knowledge is treated as residing entirely with the teacher. This Digest explores different ways in which student voices can be heard in the classroom. Negotiating a curriculum is one means through which students share authority in the classroom. Negotiation promotes student engagement, exploration, and reflection and helps teachers meet students where they are. Specific pedagogies acknowledging the importance of student voice have developed within particular disciplines. One of the most well-known is the writing process approach to teaching writing. Students' cultural identities are also crucial dimensions of student voice. For students who belong to subordinated groups, honoring their voice within the classroom assumes special significance. Building on what students know is a key component of culturally relevant teaching. Ultimately, the question for teachers is not simply how to incorporate student voices into classroom activities, but how to assist in the growth of those voices. This can entail using specific teaching methods as well as creating situations in which students express their voices beyond the classroom. (Contains 22 references.) (SM)

Children of active parents tend to be more active. This Digest describes the various socialization factors that influence a child's interest and involvement in physical activity. While role modeling exerts some effect, recent research suggests that the nature of parental influence may be much more complex. A useful theoretical model to explain parental influence on physical activity is the expectancy-value model of Eccles and Harold (1991). The model explains parent socialization behaviors related to sport and physical activity. There are various ways that parents can socialize their children to be physically active, including using parental encouragement, parental involvement, parental facilitation, and parental role modeling. Declining levels of physical activity exert a major influence on the increasing levels of childhood obesity. It is important for children to begin developing healthy activity patterns early in life. Because activity patterns have been found to track over the lifespan, efforts to promote physical activity at a young age can have major long-term public health benefits. (Contains 16 references.) (SM)

Quality teacher education programs provide candidates with many early field experiences in diverse settings. This Digest examines complexities and challenges of early field experiences, noting the nature and degree of early field experiences within teacher education programs. Through field experiences, teacher candidates observe and work with real students, teachers, and curricula in natural settings. Field experiences prior to student teaching are called early field experiences. The most prevalent field experience until the early 1980s was student teaching. Within recent years, early field experiences have become more common. Student teachers need careful guidance and mediation to help them focus on critical aspects of classroom teaching and interactions and interpret what they see in order to benefit from field experiences. The establishment of a Professional Development School greatly facilitates the delivery of early field experiences, though it is highly time- and labor-intensive. Teacher preparation programs are providing substantial amounts of early field experiences in varied settings. A 1997 survey examined field experiences nationwide and found that most teacher candidates first engaged in field experiences before their junior year. They spent a substantial number of hours engaged in early field experiences (particularly at the elementary level) in various schools and classrooms. In most programs, university supervisors provided some degree of on-site supervision. Anecdotal evidence suggests that more and earlier field experiences results in better prepared teachers. (Contains 15 references.) (SM)

Health-related habits develop early in life. The period during junior high school is especially important for developing these habits. Because adolescent behaviors may be better predictors of adult disease than adult health behaviors, interventions with children and adolescents are important. Several theories and models for explaining how people change their behavior exist. This Digest explores the more recent Transtheoretical Model and discusses how educators can apply it in working with students. The Transtheoretical Model acknowledges several stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. The typical path of behavior change usually involves slips backward to earlier stages, though progression may occur more rapidly after a slip due to insights gained when previously in the earlier stage. Only a small percentage of any group is ready for change at a given time, so educators must use a variety of processes of change to reach their audiences. Some of the processes most helpful in the early stages of change are consciousness raising, emotional arousal, self-reevaluation, and commitment. Processes most helpful in the action stage include active problem solving, counterconditioning, and creating helping relationships. Students involved in behavior change must learn to plan and pace their change processes. Necessary skills for behavior change include self-monitoring, effective goal setting, relapse prevention, assertiveness, counterconditioning, stimulus control, and reward skills. (Contains 11 references.) (SM)

Principals and teachers are becoming frustrated with conventional evaluation practices typically used to determine teacher effectiveness and, thus, tenure and promotion. This Digest explains that as new performance standards are being developed, there are reconfigured assessment designs requiring an array of reflective, analytic skills. Creation of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) in 1987 has prompted discussion of more meaningful standards for teachers and resulted in the development of a performance-based assessment system to recognize advanced competence among experienced teachers. A set of model performance-based licensing standards for new teachers that are compatible with the NBPTS certification standards has been developed by the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). INTASC has created a set of core standards that define the knowledge, dispositions, and performances essential for all beginning teachers. As part of the movement toward more professionally grounded and performance-based standards for evaluation, several state and local initiatives incorporate peer review and assistance, which appears to be more effective than traditional evaluation at both improving and letting go of teachers. This Digest presents examples of peer review and assistance programs in several school districts. It concludes that the next generation of evaluation systems will further integrate teacher accountability with professional growth. (Contains 21 references.) (SM)

Research suggests that teacher expectations can predict changes in student achievement and behavior. This Digest discusses the Pygmalion effect, or the idea that one's expectations about a person can eventually lead that person to behave and achieve in ways that conform to those expectations. Many teachers believe that they can judge ahead of time how certain students are likely, over time, to achieve and behave. The basis of a self-fulfilling prophesy (SFP) is that once a student has been pegged ahead of time, the chances are increased that a teacher's treatment of the student will help the negative prophecies or expectations come true. SFP can work to the detriment or benefit of the student, depending on the type of predictions and expectations. Teachers form expectations and assign labels based on such characteristics as body build, gender, race, ethnicity, name, attractiveness, dialect, and socioeconomic level. Different expectations lead to different treatments. Teachers convey expectations using four factors: climate, feedback, input, and output. The four factors can better be controlled if teachers are more aware that they are operating in the first place. Even if teachers do not truly feel that a student is capable of greater achievement or improved behavior, they should at least act as though they hold such heightened positive expectations. (Contains 14 references.) (SM)

Constructivism has received considerable attention in educational scholarship, practitioner preparation, and policy formation. This Digest identifies major forms of constructivism, considering issues and challenges that surface when implementing constructivist approaches to preservice and inservice teacher education. Constructivism is an epistemology, a learning or meaning-making theory, that offers an explanation of the nature of knowledge and how humans learn. It maintains that individuals create or construct their own new understandings or knowledge through the interaction of what they already know and believe and the ideas, events, and activities with which they have contact. Constructivist approaches are regarded as producing greater internalization and deeper understanding than traditional methods. Overall, two broad interpretations can be found among contemporary educators: psychological constructivism (articulated by Piaget) and social constructivism (associated with Vygotsky). Constructivism is a theory of learning, not a theory of teaching. The overarching challenge constructivism presents to teachers and teacher educators is translating a learning theory into a theory of teaching, which raises questions about what teachers need to know and be able to do. Educators also face the pitfall of regarding constructivism as the only viable theoretical framework for teaching and learning. Prospective teachers should be exposed to varying perspectives and given opportunities to develop the discretion needed to choose most appropriately and the skills to implement their choices. (Contains 14 references.) (SM)

The National Partnership for Excellence in Education and Accountability in Teaching (NPEAT) helps place improvement of teaching at the center of reform efforts, addressing two problems that impede the development of systemic reforms to improve teaching quality: (1) absence of agreement about effective strategies for improving teaching among those who significantly influence teacher capabilities and motivation and teaching conditions; and (2) discontinuity, inconsistency, and misalignment of policies and practices that influence teaching quality across the teaching career continuum. This Digest describes how NPEAT emphasizes best strategies to attract, prepare, retain, and support teachers who serve needy students in urban schools. Policies that help direct NPEAT are set by a Policy Board composed of representatives from 30 organizations. NPEAT's work is organized into Policy and Practice Strands encompassing high-promise strategies for improving teaching: recruitment and retention, teacher preparation, induction, continuing professional development, and standards and assessment. The strands include interrelated activities: developing research-based consensus around ideas, principles, and promising policies and practices; disseminating knowledge and support of related action by partners and others; identifying what we need to know more about; and conducting relevant research and development that leads to usable knowledge. NPEAT focuses on understanding and facilitating effective partnerships to enhance teaching quality. It engages in activities that encourage and support implementation of effective policies and practices. Its goal is to ensure that America provides all students with access to competent, caring teachers. (Contains 16 references.) (SM)

This Digest discusses engagement in alternative preparation to acquire a license to teach in U.S. public schools. Prospective teachers seek alternative programs for many reasons, including job change due to forced retirement or lack of interest; desire to contribute to society's wellbeing; and desire to use teaching skills learned elsewhere. Recent educational debate has centered on teacher knowledge. Education degree programs from the 1950s-1980s were deficient in content knowledge. However, alternative licensing candidates usually acquire knowledge of a particular area while studying for their bachelor's degree, and they have broad general content knowledge from core college programs. Alternative licensing requires successful completion of certain tests. The most widely used series in the United States is the PRAXIS. Because of increased demand for qualified teachers and lack of traditional bachelor's degree candidates, many teacher education institutions have modified traditional program offerings. A 1996 listing shows 328 alternative programs in 47 states, the District of Columbia, and two territories. Most teachers seek employment near where they reside, though moving to find employment has been simplified by the Interstate Contract, a mutual agreement by 38 states and the District of Columbia to recognize each other's licenses. Alternative preparation is closely watched by teacher education institutions, state departments of education, and educational researchers to examine whether it contributes to improving educational quality or further masks problems related to teacher quality. Overall, data present a mixed picture about the value of alternative paths. (Contains 25 references.) (SM)

Teachers cannot prepare their students to be information literate unless they themselves understand how to find and use information. This Digest discusses the concept of information literacy (the ability to access, evaluate, and use information from a variety of sources) and its relevance for teachers. Professional associations for K-12 and higher education have recognized the importance of information literacy to the teaching-learning process. Two major associations for librarians who work with preservice and inservice teachers have developed guidelines on what information-literate teachers need to know. The guidelines emphasize skills for searching, retrieving, and evaluating information, and developing strategies for locating databases, Internet resources, and print materials. Existing models for teachers' information literacy include: individual workshops for both preservice and inservice teachers; course-related and course-integrated instruction; and the use of case studies of teaching and learning situations. Teacher educators, teachers, and others interested in preparing K-12 students to be information literate can move forward by reflecting upon and adapting existing models. (Contains 10 references) (LL)