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Goal dysregulation theories posit that affective disorders are linked to dysregulation of goal pursuit (e.g. Johnson, Carver, & Fulford, 2010) and many psychological therapies for mood disorders focus on increasing wellbeing by working with individuals to generate and pursue personally meaningful goals. The literature pertaining to goals and mood has identified highly idiosyncratic nomothetic properties of goal pursuit such as perceived goal progress, goal importance and goal effort which all contribute to distinct goal pursuit profiles. For example, perceived goal progress has been linked to positive affect and affective reactions may serve to alter the amount of effort made towards that goal (Carver, Avivi, & Laurenceau, (2008). Gollwitzer (1993) contended that the perceived importance of a person’s goal would influence their level of effort towards that goal. Specifically, it is suggested that the centrality of that goal to a person’s self-concept increases the importance of that goal (Boden, 1973). The importance a person places on their goals may be detrimental if that individual is overly invested in a particular goal and they are not achieving their desired level of progress towards this goal and therefore have increased difficulty in disengaging from their goals despite low goal progress (Lam, Green, Power, & Checkley, 1994; Wrosch, Scheier, Carver, & Schulz, 2003). Additionally, more recent research into Conditional Goal Setting (Street, 2001) posits that those vulnerable to depression are suggested to define their self worth on the achievement of their goals. Although personal goals typically represent sustained activity over time and phenomena such as motivation and mood fluctuate, most of the research on goals and mood has been limited to the use of cross-sectional designs which usually treat them as stable, measuring them at a time point and ask the person to recall retrospectively. This method is suggested to make capturing completely the true nature of a person’s goal pursuit and mood experience in the moment unlikely. Additionally, this approach is susceptible to recall and cognitive biases. Experience Sampling Method (ESM) allows researchers to look at mood from a momentary perspective to examine dynamic and transient emotional reactions. Several studies have used ESM to look at momentary mood and personal goals. To the author’s knowledge, to date, there has been no systematic review of the findings of these studies. Chapter 1 of this thesis details a systematic review conducted with the aim of synthesising the current empirical research concerning goal processes, content and/or cognitions and their relationship to momentary mood using ESM. This systematic review focused only on studies using an Experience Sampling Methodology to look at goal processes and mood. Results from the review found that a range of goal processes and goal cognitions were found to be associated with affective experience and in particular, all studies found that goal progress was linked to experiencing positive affect. The studies identified were from a variety of settings, including universities, business and workplace settings and healthcare settings, with varying participant samples. Studies differed in the terms they used to define goals and how they asked people to generate goals. The quality of these studies varied however as ESM is a developing methodology in research, standard quality assessment tools are not available currently. In an effort to further contribute to the research in this domain, Chapter 2 presents an empirical study examining the relationship between the particular goal cognitions of perceived goal progress and perceived levels of goal effort and their impact on momentary mood through the use of ESM. It is hoped that this will allow not only for highly ecological, real-life assessments of mood and goal cognitions but also an evaluation of the potential impact of Conditional Goal Setting. It was hypothesised that lower perceived momentary goal progress and higher momentary goal effort would be associated with greater momentary mood symptoms in those with higher CGS scores. The findings of this study suggest that negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA) fluctuated considerably from moment-to-moment over time. ESM captures these within-person fluctuations as well as the between-person differences. Examining momentary mood changes from a goal pursuit perspective found that goal progress and amount of goal effort account for some of the variance in these fluctuations. In particular, results showed that not only does advancement in goal progress predict momentary positive mood, it also predicts decreased negative mood. In addition, perceived goal effort was found to be related to momentary PA and NA in that increased effort led to more NA and less effort led to more PA. A combination of increased goal progress and decreased goal effort predicted increased levels of PA and vice versa for NA. Contrary to expectation, CGS did not predict momentary mood. Extensive previous cross-sectional research has identified this link between goal progress and affective experiences and data from ESM studies sheds further light on the conceptual frameworks surrounding motivation, goal pursuit and mood.

© 2015 Cambridge Philosophical Society Understanding distribution patterns and multitrophic interactions is critical for managing bat- and bird-mediated ecosystem services such as the suppression of pest and non-pest arthropods. Despite the ecological and economic importance of bats and birds in tropical forests, agroforestry systems, and agricultural systems mixed with natural forest, a systematic review of their impact is still missing. A growing number of bird and bat exclosure experiments has improved our knowledge allowing new conclusions regarding their roles in food webs and associated ecosystem services. Here, we review the distribution patterns of insectivorous birds and bats, their local and landscape drivers, and their effects on trophic cascades in tropical ecosystems. We report that for birds but not bats community composition and relative importance of functional groups changes conspicuously from forests to habitats including both agricultural areas and forests, here termed ‘forest-agri’ habitats, with reduced representation of insectivores in the latter. In contrast to previous theory regarding trophic cascade strength, we find that birds and bats reduce the density and biomass of arthropods in the tropics with effect sizes similar to those in temperate and boreal communities. The relative importance of birds versus bats in regulating pest abundances varies with season, geography and management. Birds and bats may even suppress tropical arthropod outbreaks, although positive effects on plant growth are not always reported. As both bats and birds are major agents of pest suppression, a better understanding of the local and landscape factors driving the variability of their impact is needed.

Patellofemoral pain is extremely common in recreational athletes. Patellofemoral symptoms can severely restrict participation in athletic activities, and may also progress into osteoarthritis in later life.

Three-Dimensional Kinematics Observed Between Different Clubs during the Full Golf Swing It has been documented that the golf swing should be identical for all clubs, yet biomechanical studies of the mechanics of the golf swing obtained with different clubs are somewhat lacking. The aim of the current investigation was to determine the three-dimensional kinematic differences in full body swing kinematics when using three different clubs (driver, 9 iron and 6 iron). Thirty five skilled male golfers performed maximal velocity swings using each of the three clubs. Full body 3D kinematics were obtained using an eight camera motion capture system operating at 500 Hz. Differences between clubs were examined using repeated measures ANOVA’s and the similarity of the 3D kinematic waveforms were inspected using intraclass correlations. The results showed that the 3D kinematics waveforms from the three clubs generally exhibited a high level of similarity R2 ≥ 0.861. However, both club head velocity and stance width were significantly greater when using the driver. It was also revealed that the torso, hip and knee were significantly more extended when using the driver. Thus before the notion that the mechanics of the golf swing are similar between clubs can be accepted, additional work is required.

Objective To determine whether Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis could be isolated from soil-pasture, faecal, water and sediment samples on farms before and after removal of sheep with paratuberculosis. Design A feasibility study and subsequent field survey. Procedure First the analytical sensitivity of radiometric culture of the organism from two types of soil was determined relative to faeces. Then soil-pasture, faecal, water and sediment samples were collected for culture from a range of sites from 6 farms with paratuberculosis affected sheep and goats. Similar samples were collected from 20 farms at least 9 months after removal of infected stock. Results The analytical sensitivity of culture of M a para-tuberculosisfrom soil samples was 2 orders of magnitude less than that from faeces, and environmental samples required longer incubation periods to yield significant growth in radio-metric culture (BACTEC) medium. However, the organism was recovered from approximately 20% of 163 soil-pasture, water and sediment samples from 6 properties with clinically-affected animals with paratuberculosis. The positive samples were from a range of topographic sites, including open exposed and dry areas, however, low lying areas tended to have larger numbers of organisms. When the same sites were sampled again about 5 months later, only 1 was culture positive, and none were culture positive > 12 months later. Of 17 water and dam sediment samples collected from farm 6, which had long-standing high prevalence OJD infection, only one water sample and one sediment from the same dam were culture positive. None of the 5 water samples from the other farms were culture positive. Of 96 water samples, 90 sediment samples and 93 soil samples from farms that had been destocked of infected sheep/goats for 9 to 24 months, one sediment sample from a farm in Victoria (destocked for 12 months) and two sediment samples from a farm in New South Wales (10, 19 months) were culture positive. Recontamination from cattle or water could not be excluded as a cause of the positive cultures from the second farm. Conclusion M a paratuberculosis can be detected by radiometric culture in environmental samples from farms grazed by sheep or goats with paratuberculosis. There is a relatively low likelihood of recovery of the organism from water samples from such farms, and at 5 or more months after removing stock with paratuberculosis the likelihood of positive cultures from environmental samples is very low. Although the analytical sensitivity of culture from environmental samples is less than that from faeces, surveys of environmental sites are nevertheless feasible. However, improved culture methods are needed for critical surveys and to study the movement and fate of the organism in the environment.

ATTEMPTS to count small particles suspended in fluid flowing through a tube have not hitherto been very successful. With particles such as red blood cells the experimenter must choose between a wide tube which allows particles to pass two or more abreast across a particular section, or a narrow tube which makes microscopical observation of the contents of the tube difficult due to the different refractive indices of the tube and the suspending fluid. In addition, narrow tubes tend to block easily.

Objectives: The current study aimed to develop a measure of positive and negative beliefs in non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), the Self-Harm Beliefs Scale (SHBS). A secondary aim was to explore the impact of these beliefs on NSSI behaviour. Design: The study adopted a cross-sectional design. Methods: Adults (n=98) with a history of NSSI were recruited from general and clinical populations across the North-West of England. The relationship between beliefs and NSSI behaviour (i.e. current NSSI, NSSI severity and future likelihood of NSSI) were assessed. The impact of NSSI beliefs on shame and mental well-being were also explored. Results: The SHBS demonstrated good reliability and convergent validity. Individuals with current and historic experience of self-harm endorsed positive and negative beliefs about NSSI. Increased endorsement of positive beliefs appeared to predict current NSSI behaviour as well as future likelihood of NSSI. Both positive and negative beliefs were significant predictors of shame however, only negative beliefs significantly predicted mentalwell-being. NSSI beliefs did not appear to significantly predict NSSI severity. Conclusions: The SHBS is a reliable and valid measure of beliefs about NSSI and presents as a useful clinical and research tool. Exploring NSSI beliefs appears important for better understanding the maintenance of NSSI and improving treatment approaches for this population. Keywords: Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), positive beliefs, negative beliefs, shame, mental well-being

Introduction: Emerging evidence suggests us of real-time continuous glucose monitoring systems (RT-CGM), can assist to improve glucose control in Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) treatment, however the impact of these devices on patients’ stress levels and behaviour is poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the effects of RT-CGM on tolerance and acceptability of device wear, stress and diabetes management and motivation to change. Methods: Twenty adults (10 men, 10 women) with T2D (aged 60.6 ± 8.4 years, BMI 34.2 ± 4.7 kg/m2), were randomised to a low-carbohydrate lifestyle plan whilst wearing a RT-CGM or an ‘offline-blinded’ (Blinded-CGM) monitoring system continuously for 12 weeks. Outcomes were glycaemic control (HbA1c), weight (kg) perceived stress scale (PSS), CGM device intolerance, acceptability, motivation to change and diabetes management behaviour questionnaires. Results: Both groups experienced significant reductions in body weight (RT-CGM −7.4 ± 4.5 kg vs. Blinded-CGM −5.5 ± 4.0 kg) and HbA1c (−0.67 ± 0.82% vs. −0.68 ± 0.74%). There were no differences between groups for perceived stress (P = 0.47) or device intolerance at week 6 or 12 (both P > 0.30). However, there was evidence of greater acceptance of CGM in the RT-CGM group at week 12 (P = 0.03), improved blood glucose monitoring behaviour in the RT-CGM group at week 6 and week 12 (P ≤ 0.01), and a significant time x group interaction (P = 0.03) demonstrating improved diabetes self-management behaviours in RT-CGM. Conclusion: This study provides preliminary evidence of improved behaviours that accompany RT-CGM in the context of diabetes management and glucose self-monitoring. RT-CGM may provide an alternative approach to glucose management in individuals with T2D without resulting in increased disease distress Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The overall aim of the thesis is to explore some theorised processes underlying social anxiety. Social anxiety is the experience of anxiety in response to social or performance situations, and is a common (Henderson, Gilbert & Zimbardo, 2014) and impairing (Wittchen & Jacobi, 2005) experience, with high comorbidity with other anxiety and mood problems (Kessler, Avenivoli, et al., 2012; Kessler, Petukhova, et al., 2012) and some indication that it can lead to decreasing functioning and increasing distress over time (Beesdo et al., 2007). More than half the population report some degree of shyness or social worry (Henderson, Gilbert & Zimbardo, 2014), and understanding what underlying functions may perseverate to impair functioning may aid understanding, prevention and earlier intervention to reduce distress and increase functioning. The first chapter of this thesis is a systematic review. Several forms of attachment were included and combined with measures of social anxiety in both clinical and non-clinical populations to explore the nature of this relationship, both directly and through mediation/moderation by other variables. Thirty studies were identified and findings were synthesised narratively, meta-analysis being inappropriate due to variance between studies. Attachment was explored due to theoretical assertions that processes underlying social anxiety develop in attachment relationships (Vertue, 2003). Evolutionary psychological models of social anxiety also indicate a role for shame and social comparison as an overactive social rank system in social anxiety (Gilbert, 2000; 2001), and this was explored as a potential mediator of the relationship between attachment and social anxiety. The second chapter is an empirical study. Continuing the thesis from chapter one, the aims of the empirical study were to a) replicate findings that attachment would be associated with social anxiety, but when controlling for particular cognitive and evolutionary behavioural variables this association would lose significance and b) extend these findings through comparison of anxiety, shame and social comparison in the moment using experience-sampling methodology (ESM). As social anxiety is conceptualised as a continuum of severity and distress (Ruscio, 2010) this comparison was made within-subjects. It was hoped that observing variables in the moment would illuminate processes underlying social anxiety in different contextual settings and elucidate differences between social and non-social environments. Ultimately it was hoped that better understanding of variance in shame and social comparison in the moment could guide identification and prevention of pre-clinical experiences, as well as guide more targeted intervention based on understanding of underlying processes. Overall consideration of attachment as one potential root for these underlying processes could also be considered based on extant research. Appendices were limited by the accepted word count for this thesis, but include author guidance for the formatting of both chapters one and two, which are written to comply with the requirements of the Journal of Affective Disorders. The quality assessment tool used in chapter one is also included, as are methodological points used for chapter two. These include the person-level and ESM questionnaires, as well as the participant information sheet and advert. Following completion of this thesis, it is intended that findings from both studies will be disseminated to academic audiences through publication in peer-reviewed journals, as well as lay descriptive leaflets being emailed to participants who cited their interest in hearing results of the study.