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Background and Objectives This study aimed to evaluate the measurement properties of 2 emerging psychological resilience (PR) measures constructed for use in large national data sources and to test their reliability across social axes including race/ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. Research Design and Methods Using 2006/2008 data, the Simplified Resilience Score and the Add Health Resilience Scale were tested using overall and multigroup measurement models in a structural equation modeling framework. Results Both PR measures perform well as reliable, 1-factor latent constructs capturing adaptive capacity at various life stages. Both measures showed measurement consistency across social axes, with specific differences in item measurement across some racial/ethnic groups. Discussion and Implications The results indicate these measures represent high quality, consistent measures of PR in nationally representative aging and health data. The availability of reliable, valid measures of PR enables consistent evaluation of resilience in health and aging processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health and latent class analysis to assess the extent to which individuals integrate guns into broader health lifestyles. We also examine how these new health lifestyles differ for men and women. While men integrate guns with a variety of risk‐taking behaviors, including smoking, heavy drinking, risky sexual behavior, and fast‐food consumption, women do not. Our results are consistent with a gendered theory of gun ownership and health lifestyles. On the one hand, some men may use guns and other risky health behaviors to project hegemonic masculinity. On the other hand, some women may avoid guns and other elements of risky lifestyles to signify normative femininity. It is important for sociologists and public health scholars to focus more on how and why men are more likely to integrate guns into generally unhealthy lifestyles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using typologies outlined by Gottman and Fitzpatrick as well as institutional and companionate models of marriage, the authors conducted a latent class analysis of marital conflict trajectories using 20 years of data from the Marital Instability Over the Life Course study. Respondents were in one of three groups: high, medium (around the mean), or low conflict. Several factors predicted conflict trajectory group membership; respondents who believed in lifelong marriage and shared decisions equally with their spouse were more likely to report low and less likely to report high conflict. The conflict trajectories were intersected with marital happiness trajectories to examine predictors of high and low quality marriages. A stronger belief in lifelong marriage, shared decision making, and husbands sharing a greater proportion of housework were associated with an increased likelihood of membership in a high happiness, low conflict marriage, and a decreased likelihood of a low marital happiness group. (Contains 2 figures and 5 tables.)

Using data from six waves of the Study of Marital Instability over the Life Course (N = 1,998), we conducted a latent class analysis to test for distinct marital happiness trajectories. We found three distinct marital happiness trajectories: low, middle, and high happiness. Initial levels of life happiness were strongly associated with membership in the marital happiness trajectories and with various demographic and attitude-related control variables. Using fixed effects regression with time-varying covariates, we also found that marital happiness trajectory membership was associated with subsequent changes in both life happiness and depressive symptoms. All respondents experienced a decrease in life happiness between Wave 1 and the end of their observed time in their marriage, but respondents in the high marital happiness trajectory experienced the smallest decline. Respondents in both the high and middle marital happiness trajectories also experienced a decline in depressive symptoms across time. Intervention and policy implications are discussed.

Objectives: To investigate the impact of intergenerational mobility—measured as the difference between one's own and one's father's education level—on overall life-satisfaction among Hispanic, White, and Black older Americans. Methods: Data from the Health and Retirement Study were used to estimate life satisfaction by race/ethnicity using ordinary least squares regression (N = 5,057). Results: Hispanic and Black older Americans report greater educational gains relative to their fathers compared to Whites. Despite having the lowest reported education levels, Hispanics report the highest life satisfaction across race/ethnic groups. However, net of education level and other factors, intergenerational mobility decreased rather than increased life satisfaction for Hispanic older Americans. Discussion: These results indicate that intergenerational mobility may not confer equal benefits for overall life satisfaction across racial/ethnic groups. As Hispanic individuals continue to achieve higher education levels, it is unclear whether upward mobility will translate to positive or negative assimilation consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Research on the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among older adults has primarily focused on relatively acute virus outcomes, but it is likely financial hardships during this time have eroded the adaptive capacity of older adults. It is also possible these impacts vary by race and ethnicity. We examine changes in psychological resilience (PR) among older adults before and during the pandemic to determine whether financial hardships and other stressors have altered this resource for White, Black, and Hispanic older adults. Method Using the COVID-19 module released by the Health and Retirement Study (n = 735), we examined changes in PR between 2016 and 2020 related to financial hardships during COVID-19. We tested interactions to determine whether the effects were patterned by race and ethnicity. Results Consistent with previous literature, resilience was relatively stable during this time on average. Financial hardship during COVID-19 diminished resilience, but this effect was concentrated primarily among White Americans. Discussion The results suggest that PR is a relatively stable resource in later life, even during the pandemic. However, this resource may be affected in the face of specific challenges in later life. Policies related to financial hardship during the pandemic should be seen as supporting the capacity for older adults to adapt to current as well as future challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. Disability is conceptualized as a life course process and measured using either transitions or trajectories. Previous research does not simultaneously explore both aspects of disablement, accounting for timing and trajectory. The role of education is noted in disability research, but its independent effects over time have not been fully examined. I investigate the effects of education and income on disability onset and progression over a decade. Methods. I use a latent curve modeling approach with four waves of the Duke Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly data to independently test the preventive and mediating effects education and income provide for disability. Results. Education has a preventive effect for disability onset but no significant effect on progression once income is held constant. Income has both a preventive and mediating effect on disability, although preventive effects are stronger for education. Discussion. Later life disability is measured here using both onset and trajectory. Findings are consistent with health research suggesting that education and income work through shared and independent mechanisms to affect disability over time. These findings also highlight the importance of modeling timing when studying health trajectories. Key Words: Disability--Education--Socioeconomic status--Stratification and health. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbq018.

Examining the Black/White disability gap among older adults, this study focuses on the role of timing in racial inequality over time. Using the Duke Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (EPESE), the author reexamines Black and White disability trajectories with attention to timing of onset. In addition, known mediators are examined for their relative impact on onset and accumulation of disability. The author finds that diverging trajectories of Black and White disability, evidence of a cumulative disadvantage argument, are fueled solely by differences in onset. A more nuanced picture of racial disparities arises when controls are included, lending support to a weathering hypothesis. Access to health care is primary in explaining the Black/White disparity. The author concludes that timing is integral to the study of health trajectories and that research using cumulative disadvantage benefits from supplemental theories with specific assertions as to timing, including weathering. Keywords: disability; race; inequality; trajectories; cumulative disadvantage

Objectives. Research has increasingly focused on the dynamic nature of disability and depressive symptoms in later life. Little research, however, has modeled disability and depressive symptoms as dynamic, related processes. Furthermore, virtually no research has considered social support as dynamic across age. Here, we investigate the relationship between long-term patterns of disability, perceived and received social support, and depressive symptoms in later life. Methods. We use random coefficient (growth) models of four waves of Duke Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly data to determine whether disability, support, and depressive symptoms follow linear trajectories across age and whether support mediates the relationship between disability and depressive symptoms. Results. The results show that (a) trajectories of disability are strongly related to trajectories of depressive symptoms and (b) trajectories of perceived support mediate the relationship between trajectories of disability and depressive symptoms, whereas trajectories of received support do not. Discussion. Disability, social support, and depressive symptoms are strongly interrelated processes in later life. Our results are consistent with previous research in showing that perceived, rather than received, support mediates the relationship between disability and depressive symptoms, but our results extend previous research in showing that this mediation occurs across time.

Objectives Research on life course inequality and successful aging has sought to understand how events and challenges may lead to poor outcomes in later life for some individuals, while others fare well in the face of adversity. Among internalized resources, research suggests psychological resilience is protective in the face of challenges, but little is known about the predictive efficacy of this measure compared to other resources such as mastery. This paper examines connections between psychological resilience and later life health compared to other internalized resources. Method Standardized associations between 4 resources (resilience, mastery, optimism, hopelessness) and 5 health outcomes were tested using short-term health transitions and longer term health trajectories in a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework using the Leave Behind Questionnaire (LBQ) and linked Health and Retirement Study (HRS) between 2006/2008 and 2014/2016 (n = 11,050–12,823). Results Psychological resilience had consistent and robust associations with health transitions and trajectories. Further, the effects of this resource were generally 4–10 times greater than for mastery, optimism, and hopelessness in combined models. Trajectory analyses replicate these findings and suggest the beneficial associations of resilience over time were persistent for some health outcomes, and cumulative for others. Discussion The results suggest that psychological resilience is powerfully associated with health in later life, with substantially greater predictive efficacy than other commonly used resource measures. Future research should establish how this intrapersonal resource works alongside structural and interpersonal resources to promote and protect health and functioning in the face of challenges and adversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: We examine the impact of exposure to the dead, dying, and wounded (DDW) during military service on the later-life depressive symptom trajectories of male United States veterans, using psychological resilience as an internal resource that potentially moderates negative consequences. Methods: The Health and Retirement Study (2006–2014) and linked Veteran Mail Survey were used to estimate latent growth curve models of depressive symptom trajectories, beginning at respondents' first report of resilience. Results: Veterans with higher levels of resilience do not have increased depressive symptoms in later life, despite previous exposure to DDW. Those with lower levels of resilience and previous exposure to DDW experience poorer mental health in later life. Discussion: Psychological resilience is important for later-life mental health, particularly for veterans who endured potentially traumatic experiences. We discuss the importance acknowledging the role individual resources play in shaping adaptation to adverse life events and implications for mental health service needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Increased loneliness is a common consequence of widowhood in later life. However, individuals with high levels of perceived social support from friends tend to cope more effectively following major social losses like widowhood. Military service is associated with cultivation of strong social support structures. This effect may not only influence those who serve, but also their spouses. Roughly half of older women today are married to veterans, which could shape how they cope with widowhood. We tested two hypotheses: (a) widows of veterans will be less lonely following widowhood compared to their nonveteran counterparts, and (b) this effect will be explained by perceived social support from friends. Methods: We used the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) to examine changes in loneliness following widowhood among wives of veterans and nonveterans. We used Ordinary Least Squares regression and mediation tests to address our hypotheses. Results: Net of baseline differences, widows of veterans reported statistically lower levels of loneliness (p < .05) following widowhood compared to widows of nonveterans. Widows of veterans retained the same level of perceived social support from friends pre- and postwidowhood, whereas nonveteran wives experienced a loss. Perceived social support from friends mediated the association between veteran status of the deceased spouse and loneliness. Discussion: Our findings suggest wives of veterans may have more resilient social support structures than nonveteran spouses, helping them cope at widowhood. Future research should explore whether these effects persist in association with other major stressful events in later life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Drawing from cumulative inequality (CI) theory, the current study examined racial disparities in impairment as individuals approached death to determine whether proposed mechanisms hypothesized to fuel or diminish racial disparities at late ages were at work at the end of individualized life spans. Method Black–white disparities were analyzed among decedents using latent growth curves based on the data from the North Carolina Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly (EPESE) (N = 1,926). Results Consistent with previous literature, racial inequalities in functional disparities diminish at late ages. However, significant black–white disparities emerge as older adults approach death, exponentially increasing within the 2 years immediately preceding death. Further, these disparities are not fully mediated by socioeconomic status. Discussion The results confirm that CI in health outcomes is observable in late life among individual life spans, suggesting the years surrounding death may be a particularly vulnerable period for health inequality. Future research should examine how advantaged statuses translate to increased access to health-related resources that aid in maintaining greater functional independence until the last stage of life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives In later life, the loss of a spouse due to divorce or widowhood is common and can lead to elevated depressive symptoms and loneliness. Research suggests that companion animal (CA) may be beneficial for psychological health, but limited research has explored whether CA can buffer negative consequences of social losses. Research Design and Methods This study uses data drawn from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) to examine changes in depressive symptoms and loneliness in relation to a social loss among those with/without a CA. We used inverse-probability weighted regression to adjust for selection factors and isolate effects of CA ownership on changes in psychological health. Results Regardless of CA ownership, spousal loss was associated with psychological health consequences. Facing a social loss without a CA was related to statistically greater increases in depressive symptoms relative to those with a pet (2.580 vs. 1.207 symptoms, respectively). Similarly, experiencing a loss was associated with significantly greater increases in loneliness, with statistically greater increases in loneliness among those without a CA (p <.01). However, those with a CA did not experience greater increases in loneliness than those who did not experience a loss. Discussion and Implications In later life, CA ownership may buffer against the detrimental consequences of major social losses on psychological health. Future research on the therapeutic effects of CA ownership, as well as pet therapy, during other major life stage transitions is needed to help isolate potential mechanisms driving the benefits of human–animal interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study evaluated (a) whether the association between chronic conditions and functional limitations vary by race/ethnicity, and (b) whether socioeconomic status accounted for any observed racial variation in the association between chronic conditions and functional limitations. Method The Health and Retirement Study data were used to assess whether race/ethnicity moderated the association between chronic conditions and functional limitations, and whether education, income, and/or wealth mediated any of the observed moderation by race/ethnicity. Results Results from structural equation models of latent growth curves with random onset indicated that (a) the positive association between chronic conditions and functional limitations onset was larger for African Americans and Hispanics than it was for Whites, but (b) this difference largely persisted net of socioeconomic status. Discussion African Americans and Hispanics endure a multiplicative double disadvantage in the early stages of the disablement process where they experience (a) a more rapid onset and higher levels of functional limitations, and (b) greater risk of functional limitation onset associated with chronic conditions compared to their White counterparts. Moreover, basic economic policies are unlikely to curtail the greater risk of functional limitations onset associated with chronic conditions encountered by African Americans and Hispanics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives Spousal loss is a stressful life event that often results in significant depressive symptoms, with men often experiencing more significant depressive symptoms than women. Recent research suggests that psychological resilience may play a role in shaping how well people recover from the loss of a spouse. This study examined the moderating effect of resilience on widowhood in relation to changes in depressive symptoms for men and women. Research Design and Methods This study used data from the Health and Retirement Study to examine a change in depressive symptoms for men and women who experience spousal loss compared to those who remain continuously married (N = 5,626). We used the Simplified Resilience Score, which is based on measures drawn from the psychosocial and lifestyle questionnaire. Ordinary least squares regression was used to assess depression following reported spousal loss for widows relative to their continuously married counterparts. Results Results show resilience moderated depressive symptoms following spousal loss, but these effects varied by gender. Resilience was significantly and negatively associated with depressive symptoms for married but not for widowed women. However, for widowed men, resilience was significantly and negatively associated with depressive symptoms, and a high resilience score buffered the effect of widowhood. Discussion and Implications Our study suggests that having high levels of resilience prior to spousal loss may help offset persistent depressive symptoms, especially for men. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Research on the influence of companion animals (CA) on the health of older adults has yielded contradictory results. Selection factors, leading to heterogeneity both between and within groups of CA owners and non-owners, likely bias results. We conduct analyses to identify typologies of owners and non-owners. Methods: Using data on older adults (60+) from the 2012 Health and Retirement Study (HRS), and the HRS companion animal module, (owners = 478) and (non-owners = 624), we conducted latent class analyses (LCA). We used key demographic, health, daily engagement, and pet characteristic variables to complete our analyses. Results: Analyses revealed five clusters of CA owners and four clusters of non-owners. Health and CA related characteristics distinguishing clusters suggest important sources of variability and reflect qualitatively different profiles of owners and non-owners. We also found CA owners were more likely than non-owners to be high on neuroticism and to be less extroverted than non-owners–but again there was considerable within group variability. Implications: Factors that select people into pet ownership not only work individually to characterize ownership, they create distinct typologies of CA owners and non-owners that likely contribute to subsequent health outcomes. In order to determine if having a CA is beneficial to health in later life and for whom, future research should consider selection factors like those identified in the typologies. Statistical analyses, such as LCA, that can adequately account for these selection factors is necessary to avoid biases in the interpretation of results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]