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The conifer family Cupressaceae encompasses seven subfamilies. Five of them were once considered to constitute the family Taxodiaceae, later eliminated because of its paraphyletic nature but remaining as an informal category for early‐diverging Cupressaceae lineages. Among the taxodiaceous subfamilies, Athrotaxoideae shows a unique morphology in its ovuliferous complexes (OCs) and a phylogenetically unexplored fossil record. We describe the new genus and species Patagotaxodia lefipanensis, based on OC adpressions associated with leafy branches collected at the Maastrichtian section of the Lefipán Formation (Patagonia, Argentina), and we refer it to Athrotaxoideae. We include Patagotaxodia in total evidence phylogenetic analysis to test its affinity, and we recover it within the subfamilies Athrotaxoideae or Cunninghamioideae. However, we argue that the characters supporting the athrotaxoid affinity are more meaningful in a taxodiaceous systematic context. This placement is also supported by taxon inclusion‐exclusion experiments. We discuss the position of other Cretaceous athrotaxoid records. With basis on the morphological insights provided by the OC morphology of extant and extinct Athrotaxoideae, we study the evolution of the OC morphology in the family in a phylogenetic context and discuss the results in the light of the fossil record of the family. We discuss how and when the different morphologies appeared in the family. Based on phylogenetic, temporal, morphological, and ontogenetic evidence, we conclude that the OC morphology shown by the subfamily Athrotaxoideae is intermediate between two of the most common morphologies within extant and extinct Cupressaceae species, one of which would show adaptative advantages over basal morphologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five new dimer compounds, namely Taiwaniacryptodimers A–E (1–5), were isolated from the methanol extract of the roots of Taiwania cryptomerioides. Their structures were established by mean of spectroscopic analysis and comparison of NMR data with those of known analogues. Their antifungal activities were also evaluated. Our results indicated that metabolites 1, 2, 4, and 5 displayed moderate antifungal activities against Aspergillus niger, Penicillium italicum, Candida albicans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

The former family Taxodiaceae is currently treated as nine genera in five subfamilies of the family Cupressaceae. Pollen of the 'taxodiaceous' Cupressaceae typically has a papilla in the leptoma area and is common in Cenozoic strata because some of its genera were key elements in lignite forming swamp forests. Dispersed fossil pollen of this group are often assigned to particular genera and, based on the modern ecologies of these taxa, to particular palaeoenvironments. In this study, we investigated pollen of all nine genera of the former Taxodiaceae using light and scanning electron microscopy to evaluate whether pollen morphology can be used to discriminate modern genera of this paraphyletic group. We found few genus- or subfamily-diagnostic characters among members of taxodiaceous Cupressaceae. Features such as orbiculae and pollen and leptoma size cannot be used to discriminate subfamilies. However, three basal subfamilies share short papillae, whereas in two more derived clades (Sequoioideae and Taxodioideae) papillae are markedly longer. In the generally non-papillate core Cupressaceae, the leptoma (aperture) area may or may not possess a distinct circular thinning as also found in the basal grade of taxodiaceous Cupressaceae. Our results show that it is difficult if not impossible to distinguish genera of the ecologically distinct Taxodioideae and Sequoioideae based on pollen morphology. In view of a much wider ecological amplitude of many taxodiaceous Cupressaceae during large parts of the Cenozoic, we conclude that it is not recommendable to infer particular palaeoenvironments on the basis of dispersed taxodiaceous pollen grains alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The huge production of waste agricultural and biomass products has a negative impact on the environment, thus necessitating economic and environmental recycling of abundant bio-waste materials to useful materials. To recycle and convert bio-waste materials, a sustainable nanoporous carbon from bio-waste (peanut shell, gingko, and metasequoia leaves) is facilely synthesized via one-step carbonization. Carbonized samples contain a small quantity of metal and non-metal residues (including sulfur and phosphorus), resulting in naturally doped porous carbon. The porosity, morphology, and composition of the nanoporous carbons were investigated and compared with those of commercially available activated carbon. Pure component adsorption isotherms of CO 2 , CH 4 , and N 2 were also measured at 40 °C up to1 bar for all samples. These data were used to estimate the separation selectivity for CO 2 /CH 4 and CO 2 /N 2 1:1 binary mixtures and pressures according to the ideal adsorbed solution theory (IAST) model. Carbonized gingko leaf had the lowest SSA and pore volume but the highest S and P contents, with the highest average selectivity of 506 and 54 for CO 2 /N 2 and CO 2 /CH 4, respectively. This implies that the composition of the prepared carbon materials plays a significant role in their CO 2 adsorption and separation ability, rather than their textural properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chinese fir, Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. (Taxodiaceae), is an evergreen conifer primarily distributed in southern China. This species exhibits very poor natural regeneration, possibly due to low light and a thick litter layer. To improve the understanding of the natural regeneration capacity of Chinese fir, in this study, we conducted a shade house experiment to determine the optimum light requirements and seed positions for seedling emergence and early growth. The experiment involved five light levels (100%, 60%, 40%, 15%, 5% of full sunlight) and four seed positions (1 cm beneath the soil surface without litter, on the soil surface without soil–seed contact, on the soil surface and covered with litter, and 1 cm beneath the soil surface and covered with litter). Seedling emergence was highest at 5%–15% sunlight, whereas seedling height, root length, root mass, stem mass, leaf mass, and total mass were highest at 60% sunlight. For each light level, seed position significantly affected emergence and growth. The above-litter position inhibited seedling emergence and survival, while the below-litter position favored seedling emergence and early growth, particularly under high light levels. Based on these results, to enhance natural regeneration of Chinese fir, we recommend periodical thinning to increase light into the understory after successful seedling emergence. We also recommend sowing seeds deeper into the litter to improve soil contact and moisture conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of the study: To quantify the population-level genetic characteristics of Cunninghamia lanceolata (Taxodiaceae), an important timber conifer, we developed 30 pairs of microsatellite primers based on the nuclear genome. Methods and Results: Using the streptavidin-biotin capture system, we developed 14 polymorphic and 16 monomorphic microsatellites. Polymorphisms were detected in 14 loci using 94 individual trees that were collected from three C. lanceolata populations in Hubei and Zhejiang provinces and in Chongqing Municipality, China. There were three to 30 alleles per locus, and the observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.0313-0.8333 and from 0.0313-0.9246, respectively. Cross-species amplification showed that two to seven polymorphic loci were functional in three of the five related species that were collected. Conclusions: Our newly developed microsatellite primers provide neutral molecular markers that are beneficial to future studies of population genetics and germplasm conservation of C. lanceolata. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A permineralized coniferous wood, Medulloprotaxodioxylon triassicum Wan, Yang, Tang, Liu et Wang gen. et sp. nov., is described from the Norian (Late Triassic) Huangshanjie Formation in the Dalongkou Section, Jimsar County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, northwestern China. The fossil wood is composed of the pith, primary and secondary xylem. The pith is solid, circular, heterocellular, with numerous isolated or clustered secretory cells, and parenchyma. Secretory cells commonly form a network in a radial view. The pith is surrounded by numerous primary xylem strands and about 22 distinctive leaf traces. The primary xylem is endarch. Tracheids of primary xylem have helical and scalariform thickenings. The secondary xylem is pycnoxylic, composed of tracheids, rays and axial parenchyma. The general aspect of the tracheids and rays, presence of taxodioid cross-field pits, and abundant axial parenchyma, indicate M . triassicum can be related to the taxodiaceous Cupressaceae sensu lato. By comparison with fossil and extant species of the Cupressaceae, M . triassicum is most comparable to Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindley) Buchholz. It is hypothesized that M . triassicum represents an ancestral form of the Sequoioideae Saxton based on the anatomical characteristics of the pith and secondary xylem. The occurrence of M . triassicum would indicate that the taxodiaceous conifers had already individualized within the Cupressaceae during the Late Triassic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wood anatomy is one of the tools used for taxonomic classification of species. By combining this tool with molecular phylogeny, the current groupings made in morphological studies can be discussed. This study describes the wood anatomy of the monotypic genera of Cupressaceae and analyses the features that could represent synapomorphies of the principal clades recovered by molecular phylogeny. The wood anatomical study shows the high homogeneity of this family, revealing the presence of common ancestral features that support the union between Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae s.s. and the separation of Sciadopitys. It also supports the group formed by Taxodiaceae in Cupressaceae s.l. No clear division was observed between the callitroid and cupressoid clades. Some wood anatomical differences were observed in the Fitzroya- Diselma- Pilgerodendron and Microbiota- Platycladus- Tetraclinis associations. The wood anatomical features common to the family, such as axial tracheids without helical thickenings, homogeneous rays, cupressoid cross-field pits and the presence of a warty layer, are put forward as possible synapomorphies for Cupressaceae s.l. The clade-specific synapomorphies are taxodioid cross-field pits for taxodioid and sequoioid clades, absence of a well-defined torus in Thuja- Thujopsis and torus extensions in Diselma- Fitzroya- Widdringtonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryptomeria japonica , which is one of the main silvicultural species in Japan, accumulates calcium (Ca) in soils with high acid buffering capacity (ABC) but has depleted Ca in soils with low-ABC over the past two decades. However, the contribution of fine roots in C. japonica to the accumulation or depletion of Ca in soils with different ABCs has not been evaluated. The aim of this study was to clarify the responses of C. japonica fine roots in terms of biomass and morphology in eight plantation stands to soils with two contrasting ABCs, which have different trends of soil acidification. We evaluated the biomass and specific root length (SRL) of fine roots divided into three diameter classes (<0.5, 0.5–1.0, and 1.0–2.0 mm), obtained from the organic layer and two mineral soil layers from 0 to 10 and 10 to 20 cm depths, in soils with high- and low-ABCs. We also investigated root traits of seedlings grown in soil monoliths in-situ in a greenhouse condition to compare the response of mature trees in stands. The biomass of fine roots (<2.0 mm) in mature C. japonica was significantly higher and the SRL was significantly lower in low-ABC soils than in high-ABC soils. In the organic layer, the biomass of very fine roots (<0.5 mm) at the organic soil layer in low ABC soils was higher than that in high ABC soils. However, the SRL and the dry weight of the seedlings in the greenhouse condition showed no differences between the soils with two contrasting ABCs. We concluded that fine roots of C. japonica stands could have changed and contributed differently to soils with contrasting ABCs. The conflicting root responses of mature trees in stand and seedlings under controlled conditions suggest that careful caution should be taken to extrapolate in-situ mature trees from the results of seedlings, particularly when evaluating the effects of soil degradation such as soil acidifications on sustainable C. japonica plantation forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two new diterpenoids, konishone (1) and 3b-hydroxy-5,6-dehydrosugiol (2), along with three known diterpenoids—hinokiol (3), sugiol (4), and 12-hydroxy-6,7-secoabieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial (5)—were isolated from the wood of Cunninghamia konishii. Compound 1 is a novel skeleton of the 7,20-dinorabietane-type diterpene. In addition, when RAW264.7 macrophages were treated with different concentrations of compounds 1, 3, and 5 together with LPS, a significant concentration-dependent inhibition of NO production was detected. The IC50 values for inhibition of nitrite production of compounds 1, 3, and 5 were about 9.8 ± 0.7, 7.9 ± 0.9, and 9.3 ± 1.3 μg/mL, respectively. This study presents the potential utilization of compounds 1, 3, and 5, as lead compounds for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Purpose: The relationships among resorption, leaf nutrient status, and soil nutrient availability remain unresolved. Moreover, the dynamics of resorption in leaf and soil nutrients and stoichiometry during development of Chinese fir ( Cunninghamia lanceolata) stands have rarely been studied. This study quantified the resorption efficiencies of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), and their potential correlations with stoichiometric ratios in leaf and soil as Chinese fir stands develop, and also evaluated the nutritional control on resorption in the stands based on the 'relative resorption hypothesis.' Materials and methods: Leaf and soil samples were collected from Chinese fir stands at different developmental stages (young, mature, and overmature) at the Xinkou National Forest in southern China. Samples of green leaves were collected from different portions of the crown from representative trees in different seasons. Samples of senesced leaves were collected from litter traps placed under the representative trees every month. Soils were sampled at three depths (0-20, 20-40, and 40-60 cm). Samples of green and senesced leaves were analyzed to determine nutrient (N, P, and K) concentrations, stoichiometric ratios, and resorption efficiencies. Soil samples were also analyzed for nutrient concentrations (organic matter, N, P, and K) and stoichiometric ratios. Results and discussion: P (75 %) and K (77 %) resorption efficiencies were higher than N resorption efficiency (57 %) but did not vary among the stands. However, K resorption efficiency decreased from the young to the overmature stage. N and P resorption efficiencies were influenced by season, and leaf nutrient stoichiometric ratios varied with stand stage. Green-leaf N and P concentrations, and senesced-leaf K concentration increased with stand developmental stage. The concentrations of N, P, and K decreased with soil depth, and there was no interaction effect of stand stage and soil depth on stoichiometric ratios of the soil nutrients. The correlation results showed that nutrient resorption efficiencies were mostly affected by leaf nutrient status, but seldom by soil nutrient concentration and stoichiometry. Conclusions: The results suggest Chinese fir might preferentially resorb P and K from senescing leaves prior to abscission. Based on the relative resorption hypothesis the Chinese fir plantations are more limited by P and that resorption may be an important mechanism to conserve nutrients in these stands in order to reduce dependence on soil nutrient pools. There is an indication that stand development affects these processes; however, the resorption process and internal mechanism need to be further investigated for the long term. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three new sesquiterpenoids, 2 -hydroxy-3,3,6 ,9 -tetramethyltricyclo[4,3,21,4]undecane (1), 11-acetoxyeudesman-4 -ol (4), and 2 ,3 -dihydroxy-4 -methyl-6,8,10-cadinatriene (6), four known sesquiterpenoids (2, 3, 5, and 7), together with eight known diterpenoids (8–15), were isolated from the wood of Cunninghamia konishii. Their structures were determined by detailed analysis of spectroscopic data and comparison with the data of known analogues. Four sesquiterpenoids (1, 4, 5, and 6) and all the diterpenoids (8–15) were evaluated for inhibition of nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 macrophages and the results showed that compounds 10 and 15 exhibited moderate inhibitory activities against nitric oxide production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Homoploid hybrid speciation is receiving growing attention due the increasing recognition of its role in speciation. We investigate if individuals intermediate in morphology between the two species of the conifer genus Athrotaxis represent a homoploid hybrid species, A. laxifolia, or are spontaneous F1 hybrids. METHODS: A total of 1055 individuals of Athrotaxis cupressoides and A. seiaginoides, morphologically intermediate individuals, and two putative hybrid swarms were sampled across the range of the genus and genotyped with 13 microsatellites. We used simulations to test the power of our data to identify the pure species, F1 s, F2 s, and backcross generations. KEY RESULTS: We found that Athrotaxis cupressoides and A. seiaginoides are likely the most divergent congeneric conifers known, but the intermediates are F, hybrids, sharing one allele each from A. cupressoides and A. seiaginoides at six loci with completely species specific alleles. The hybrid swarms contain wide genetic variation with stronger affinities to the locally dominant species, A. seiaginoides and A. seiaginoides backcrosses outnumbering A cupressoides backcrosses. In addition, we observed evidence for isolated advanced generation backcrosses within the range of the pure species. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that, even though they can be large and long-lived, Athrotaxis hybrid swarms are on a trajectory of decline and will eventually be reabsorbed by the parental species. However, this process may take millennia and fossil evidence suggests that such events have occurred repeatedly since the early Quaternary. Given this timeline, our study highlights the many obstacles to homoploid hybrid speciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study was aimed at determining the origin and geological evolution of lignites from the Smederevsko Pomoravlje field (Kostolac Basin, Serbia). The possibility of a rational utilization of the coal was also considered. For this purpose, numerous organic geochemical analyses were applied to representative lignite samples. The obtained results showed that the coal from the Smederevsko Pomoravlje field is a typical humic coal. The peat-forming vegetation was dominated by gymnosperm plants. The coal-forming plants belonged to the gymnosperm families Taxodiaceae, Cupressaceae, Phyllocladaceae and Pinaceae. Other precursors of organic matter (OM) were microbial biomass, ferns and angiosperms. It was established that peatification occurred in a neutral to slightly acidic, fresh water environment under anoxic to suboxic redox conditions. The maturity of the OM is low, in the phase of intense diagenetic processes. The biomarker compositions and values of the corresponding parameters revealed that the Smederevsko Pomoravlje field, the Drmno field (Kostolac Basin) and the "A" field (Kovin deposit) represent a part of a unique lignite basin. The results of this study suggest possible rational utilization of the Smederevsko Pomoravlje lignites in thermal power plants. This is particularly related to samples from coal seam I. A significant amount of gas could be generated from lignites at higher maturities. Eight samples met the basic assumptions for effective gasification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of research. The ability of cypress knees to allow easy diffusion of O2 from the atmosphere to the attached submerged root is supported by a number of past ecomorphological observations yet not by any experimental evidence, despite several past in situ studies that examined this phenomenon. Methodology. O2 concentration of air extracted from submerged roots was compared when attached knees were above water and when they were submerged. Pivotal results. When roots were submerged, the root internal air O2 concentration was much higher when the knee was above water than when both the knee and root were submerged. This result unambiguously supports past assumptions that cypress knees do indeed function as pneumatophores in supplying submerged roots with oxygen. Conclusions. Using a simple but unique experimental approach, the results of this study show that cypress knees function as pneumatophores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the results of the study of higher plant spores and pollen in a section of the Levashi Formation near the village of Aimaki. The Hauterivian and Barremian palynological associations were defined on the basis of changes in the taxonomic content of terrestrial plant spores and pollen. The associations are comparable with Hauterivian and Barremian assemblages of various regions of the Caucasus with respect to the composition of major groups and individual taxa. A transition in the vegetation was noted, from the coniferous palynological association of the Hauterivian to a fern association in the Barremian. The predominance of hygrophilous ferns and the presence of lycophytes and representatives of Taxodiaceae and Sphagnopsida in the Barremian (which were nearly absent in the Hauterivian), accompanied by a significant decrease in thermophilic Cheirolepidiaceae and other conifers, indicate a change in climate characterized by an increase in humidity and a decrease in temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Distribution shifts and natural selection during past climatic changes are important factors in determining the genetic structure of forest species. In particular, climatic fluctuations during the Quaternary appear to have caused changes in the distribution ranges of plants, and thus strongly affected their genetic structure. This study was undertaken to identify the responses of the conifer Cryptomeria japonica, endemic to the Japanese Archipelago, to past climatic changes using a combination of phylogeography and species distribution modelling (SDM) methods. Specifically, this study focused on the locations of refugia during the last glacial maximum (LGM). Methods Genetic diversity and structure were examined using 20 microsatellite markers in 37 populations of C. japonica. The locations of glacial refugia were assessed using STRUCTURE analysis, and potential habitats under current and past climate conditions were predicted using SDM. The process of genetic divergence was also examined using the approximate Bayesian computation procedure (ABC) in DIY ABC to test the divergence time between the gene pools detected by the STRUCTURE analysis. Key Results STRUCTURE analysis identified four gene pools: northern Tohoku district; from Chubu to Chugoku district; from Tohoku to Shikoku district on the Pacific Ocean side of the Archipelago; and Yakushima Island. DIY ABC analysis indicated that the four gene pools diverged at the same time before the LGM. SDM also indicated potential northern cryptic refugia. Conclusions The combined evidence from microsatellites and SDM clearly indicates that climatic changes have shaped the genetic structure of C. japonica. The gene pool detected in northern Tohoku district is likely to have been established by cryptic northern refugia on the coast of the Japan Sea to the west of the Archipelago. The gene pool in Yakushima Island can probably be explained simply by long-term isolation from the other gene pools since the LGM. These results are supported by those of SDM and the predicted divergence time determined using ABC analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Myeloblastosis (MYB) is one of the largest transcribed factor families in plants. To gain an overall picture of the evolution of MYB genes in relict plants, we cloned nine novel MYB genes in Taxodiaceae plants ( Taxodium distichum, Taxodium ascendens, Cryptomeria japonica var. Sinensis, Cryptomeria japonica cv. Araucarioides, Cryptomer Japonica, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Taiwania cryptomerioides and Glyptostrobus pensilis). The deduced amino acid sequences for MYBs showed that the nine MYB proteins contained two DNA binding domains. The first domain is from amino acid position 29 to 78, wherein three tryptophanes at 33, 53 and 73 were separated by 19 amino acids, respectively. The second domain is from amino acid position 82 to 127, wherein three tryptophanes at 86, 105 and 124 were separated by 18 amino acids, respectively, whereas the first tryptophane at amino acid position 86 is replaced by a phenylalanine. The characterization of these conserved domains at nine MYBs indicated that they all belong to the R2R3-MYB group. The secondary structure analysis showed that α-helix and β-turn are the major motifs of the predicted secondary structure of MYBs. The three dimensional model of each MYB protein showed that the structure is like clip, making it more flexible and mobile. The similarities between the nine MYB proteins in Taxodiaceae were calculated. The highest identical value of 99% is between CjsMYB, CjMYB and CjaMYB, whereas the lowest value of 82% is between TaMYB and ClMYB. According to the phylogenetic tree, the distances between different genera were relatively large whereas those within genera were relatively small. As expected, accessions of the same genus formed a subgroup before being grouped with other genera. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Taxodium is renowned for its strong tolerance to waterlogging stress, thus it has great ecological and economic potential. However, the scant genomic resources in genus Taxodium have greatly hindered further exploration of its underlying flood-tolerance mechanism. Taxodium 'Zhongshansa' is an interspecies hybrid of T.distichum and T. mucronatum, and has been widely planted in southeastern China. To understand the genetic basis of its flood tolerance, we analyzed the transcriptomes of Taxodium 'Zhongshansa' roots and shoots in response to short-term waterlogging. Results RNA-seq was used to analyze genome-wide transcriptome changes of Taxodium'Zhongshansa 406' clone root and shoot treated with 1 h of soil-waterlogging stress. After de novo assembly, 108,692 unigenes were achieved, and 70,260 (64.64%) of them were annotated. There were 2090 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) found in roots and 394 in shoots, with 174 shared by both of them, indicating that the aerial parts were also affected. Under waterlogging stress, the primary reaction of hypoxic-treated root was to activate the antioxidative defense system to prevent cells experiencing reactive oxygen species (ROS) poisoning. As respiration was inhibited and ATP decreased, another quick coping mechanism was repressing the energy-consuming biosynthetic processes through the whole plant. The glycolysis and fermentation pathway was activated to maintain ATP production in the hypoxic root. Constantly, the demand for carbohydrates increased, and carbohydrate metabolism were accumulated in the root as well as the shoot, possibly indicating that systemic communications between waterlogged and non-waterlogged tissues facilated survival. Amino acid metabolism was also greatly influenced, with down-regulation of genes involvedin serine degradation and up-regulation of aspartic acid degradation. Additionally, a non-symbiotic hemoglobin class 1 gene was up-regulated, which may also help the ATP production. Moreover, the gene expression pattern of 5 unigenes involving in the glycolysis pathway revealed by qRT-PCR confirmed the RNA-Seq data. Conclusions We conclude that ROS detoxification and energy maintenance were the primary coping mechanisms of 'Zhongshansa'in surviving oxygen deficiency, which may be responsible for its remarkable waterlogging tolerance. Our study not only provided the first large-scale assessment of genomic resources of Taxodium but also guidelines for probing the molecular mechanism underlying 'Zhongshansa' waterlogging tolerance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Two new labdane-type diterpenes were isolated and characterized from Cunninghamia konishii. [•] Four known labdane-type diterpenoids were isolated from C. konishii. [•] Structures of these isolates were elucidated by spectroscopic methods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study attempted to measure forest resources at the individual tree level using high-resolution images by combining GPS, RS, and Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies. The images were acquired by the WorldView-2 satellite with a resolution of 0.5 m in the panchromatic band and 2.0 m in the multispectral bands. Field data of 90 plots were used to verify the interpreted accuracy. The tops of trees in three groups, namely ⩾10 cm, ⩾15 cm, and ⩾20 cm DBH (diameter at breast height), were extracted by the individual tree crown (ITC) approach using filters with moving windows of 3 × 3 pixels, 5 × 5 pixels and 7 × 7 pixels, respectively. In the study area, there were 1,203,970 trees of DBH over 10 cm, and the interpreted accuracy was 73.68 ± 15.14% averaged over the 90 plots. The numbers of the trees that were ⩾15 cm and ⩾20 cm DBH were 727,887 and 548,919, with an average accuracy of 68.74 ± 17.21% and 71.92 ± 18.03%, respectively. The pixel-based classification showed that the classified accuracies of the 16 classes obtained using the eight multispectral bands were higher than those obtained using only the four standard bands. The increments ranged from 0.1% for the water class to 17.0% for Metasequoia glyptostroboides, with an average value of 4.8% for the 16 classes. In addition, to overcome the "mixed pixels" problem, a crown-based supervised classification, which can improve the classified accuracy of both dominant species and smaller classes, was used for generating a thematic map of tree species. The improvements of the crown- to pixel-based classification ranged from -1.6% for the open forest class to 34.3% for Metasequoia glyptostroboides, with an average value of 20.3% for the 10 classes. All tree tops were then annotated with the species attributes from the map, and a tree count of different species indicated that the forest of Purple Mountain is mainly dominated by Quercus acutissima, Liquidambar formosana and Pinus massoniana. The findings from this study lead to the recommendation of using the crown-based instead of the pixel-based classification approach in classifying mixed forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigation of the wood of Cunninghamia konishii resulted in the isolation and characterization of one new abietane diterpenoid, (6 α,7 β)-7,8-epoxy-6-hydroxyabieta-9(11),13-dien-12-one ( 1), and two new labdane diterpenoids, (12 R)-12-hydroxylabda-8(17),13(16),14-trien-19-oic acid ( 2) and (12 R)-12-hydroxylabda-8(17),13(16),14-trien-18-oic acid ( 3). The structures of these new compounds were elucidated by analysis of their spectroscopic data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Fifty-two compounds (1–52) were isolated from Metasequoia glyptostroboids. [•] Twenty-eight compounds were first reported from M. glyptostroboids. [•] The configuration of three norlignans (1–3) have only be found in M. glyptostroboids. [•] This finding may support the opinion of establishing Metasequoia as a monotypic genus from the chemotaxonomical aspect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss the issue concerning a reduction in the involvement of representatives of the American-East Asian and Mediterranean floras and the formation of the contemporaneous vegetation composition in the Eopleistocene and Neopleistocene in the territory of Azerbaijan. The study revealed a dynamics of the boundaries of altitudinal belts at periods of glaciations and interglacials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Amplified consensus genetic marker (ACGM) is a PCR-based marker technique that uses primers designed within conserved regions of coding sequences. After a comparison of Cryptomeria japonica and Arabidopsis ESTs to search for conserved sequences, 237 single e-PCR products were obtained. We randomly selected 110 candidate ACGM markers to test. Of the 110 candidate ACGM markers tested, 106 yielded stable and clear PCR products in C. japonica. We then tested the utility of these 106 primer pairs in 10 species, representing 7 genera of Taxodiaceae. The number of specific amplification primer pairs among those 10 species varied from 49 to 103 (or 46.2∼97.2%). The 106 primer pairs (ACGM loci) were high transferable to Cryptomeria fortunei Hooibrenk (97.2%) but were low in Metasequoia glyptostroboides (46.2%). The number of PCR bands per primer pair ranged from 1.06 to 1.15, which means that most of the ACGM primers can obtain a single band within these 10 Taxodiaceae species. In summary, our study shows that ACGM is a technique applicable for marker development even in species with limited sequence data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fossiliferous ironstone deposits of the Upper Cretaceous Horseshoe Canyon Formation in the Drumheller badlands, Alberta, Canada, contain a diverse, anatomically preserved flora. Within this assemblage occur abundant stems, leafy shoots, leaves, ovuliferous cones, and pollen cone clusters that are here described as a new species of Cunninghamia. The stems have persistent leaf bases and plagiotropic branching. Some stems show several growth increments, and the cortex and pith are made up of resin canals, large parenchymatous cells, and lysigenous cavities. Leafy shoot axes have parenchymatous cells, resinous cells, lysigenous cavities, and resin canals within the cortex and pith. The leaves are helically arranged, lanceolate to falcate, with two abaxial stomatal bands, a large central resin canal, and two smaller lateral canals. The ovuliferous cones have numerous helically arranged bract scale complexes. The bracts and three-lobed ovuliferous scale are variously ornamented. Anatomical features of bracts include a well-defined hypodermal layer and resin canals with adaxial traces. A single vascular trace enters the complex and divides to produce the ovuliferous-scale trace and bract traces. Ovules/seeds are ovoid and weakly winged. The pollen cone-bearing branch apices show stalks of at least 17 pollen cones arranged in a pseudowhorl. Each stalk consists of an inflated base surrounded by 5-6 scale-like leaves. The anatomy and morphology of the fossil material agrees so closely with that of modern Cunninghamia that we are confident in describing it as a new species of this genus, Cunninghamia taylorii sp. nov. The present material provides a rare opportunity to contribute toward a better understanding of the specific variation, biology, ecology, and evolutionary history of cunninghamioid Cupressaceae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A palynological study has been carried out on samples from a well exposed outcrop near Kg. Pejing along the road connecting Chenor and Paloh Hinai in the central part of Pahang. This well exposed outcrop is described as flat interbedded carbonaceous mudstone and sandstone. A palynological investigation of the outcrop section has revealed that the palynomorph assemblages were dominated by typical Tertiary palynomorphs such as Lanagiopollis emarginatus, Discoidites borneensis, Taxodiaceae, Stenochlaena palustris, Asplenium type, freshwater, peat swamp pollen and abundant tricolpate and tricolporate pollen. These palynomorph assemblages suggest the occurrence of ephemeral peat swamp and riparian fringe type environment. The age of the rock succession is probably Late Miocene and/or younger based on the presence of certain stratigraphically significant and age restricted taxa such as Lanagiopollis emarginatus and Stenochlaenidites papuanus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study aimed to elucidate the anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective bioactivities of a sesquiterpenol, (1S,6R)-2,7(14),10-bisabolatrien-1-ol-4-one (BSL), isolated from Cryptomeria japonica (Taxodiaceae) wood extract. BSL markedly suppressed TNF-α and IL-6 secretion, PGE2 production, and mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse macrophages. BSL also potently inhibited the 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) induced protein levels of nitrotyrosine and COX-2 in mouse skin with dermatitis. Conversely, the stress protein heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) was found upregulated in the same BSL-treated macrophages, probably through activation of the JNK-dependent pathway. LPS-induced activation of NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways, however, was not responsive to BSL treatment. A BSL-enriched extract (BSL-E; 10mg/kg) significantly prevented CCl4-induced chronic liver injury, lipid accumulation, and cell necrosis and inhibited aminotransferase activities and iNOS and COX-2 overexpression in mice liver tissues, an effect comparable with that of silymarin, a hepatoprotective drug. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this comparative developmental genetics study, we test hypotheses based on fossil and morphological data on reproductive organ morphology and evolution in conifers-specifically, the ovule-bearing organ in Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae. Genes homologous to the Arabidopsis gene AGAMOUS are expressed in ovuliferous scales of spruces ( Picea) throughout development. Previous studies have shown that the AGAMOUS subfamily of MADS-box genes predates the split between angiosperms and gymnosperms, and that these genes have in part conserved functions in reproductive development among seed plants, especially in the specification of identity of the ovule-bearing organs. These data indicate that their expression in conifer families other than Pinaceae might be used as markers for organs homologous to the Pinaceae ovuliferous scale. Here we have isolated putative AGAMOUS orthologs from Cupressaceae and Taxodiaceae and analyzed their expression pattern in seed cones to test for the presence of morphological homologs of ovuliferous scales. Our results were not congruent with the hypothesis that the tooth of the Cryptomeria seed cone is homologous to the Picea ovuliferous scale. Likewise, the hypothesis that the bracts of Thujopsis and Juniperus contain fused ovuliferous scales was not supported. However, we found expression of AGAMOUS homologs in the sterile bracts of Cupressaceae seed cones at late developmental stages. This expression probably represents a novel gene function in these conifer families, since no corresponding expression has been identified in Pinaceae. Our study suggests that the evolutionary history of modern conifer cones is more diverse than previously thought. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bald cypress is an introduced plant species in the protected area "Veliko Ratno Ostrvo". It is growing outside its natural range, and in the given conditions it is capable of natural regeneration. The aim of the research was to study the adaptation, production and reproduction potential of this species, as the base for the conservation and targeted utilisation of the available gene pool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

new species Sequoioxylon burejense Blokhina et M. Afonin (Taxodiaceae), identified on the basis of anatomical features of fossil wood from the Middle Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) of the Zeya-Bureya Basin, Amur Region, Russian Far East, is described. The new species is characterized by mixed anatomical features of the modern representatives of the tribe Sequoieae. Cretaceous wood of Taxodiaceae was found in the Amur Region for the first time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The early Cenozoic Chickaloon Formation is the main coal-bearing sequence in south-central Alaska. Coal and associated plant macrofossils are well exposed in the Eska, Premier, and Jonesville Coal Groups in the Wishbone Hill District. There is a striking variation in the degree and mode of preservation of fossil trees in a vertical sequence through these coal groups. We examined the wood taxonomy, mineralogy, and geochemistry to elucidate potential cause(s) for these differences. The wood anatomy indicates that the wood is all assignable to the Cupressaceae (Taxodiaceae s.str.) and assignable to the form genus Taxodioxylon Hartig emend. Gothan. However, we found no significant variation in the taxonomy of the wood between stratigraphic layers. The wood generally becomes better preserved in the Jonesville Coal Group. Wood from the stratigraphically lower Premier Coal Group exhibits greater plastic deformation and contains less well-preserved wood anatomical features. The wood from the overlying Jonesville Coal Group retains most of its original morphology, but has suffered from brittle fracture. The geochemistry and mineralogy of the wood follow a pattern that corresponds to the degree of preservation. The less well-preserved wood tends to have a higher concentration of iron carbonate minerals (e.g., siderite and ankerite), whereas the better preserved wood contains more calcium carbonate or silica. All evidence points to rapid permineralization of the original wood, although the least well-preserved wood shows evidence of greater organic matter decomposition than the better preserved wood. The wood taxonomy and mode of preservation of wood from the upper part of the Chickaloon Formation is similar to wood from coeval fossil forests that developed at higher (polar) paleolatitudes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new sesquiterpene (1) and a new triterpene (2) along with 25 known compounds were isolated from the fruits of Cryptomeria fortunei (Taxodiaceae). Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conversion of native broadleaf forest (NF) and introduction of broadleaf species into monospecific Cunninghamia lanceolata plantations are silvicultural practices driven by the increasing demand for timber production. This study was conducted to evaluate the impacts of successive planting of C. lanceolata and mixed plantations ( C. lanceolata- Michelia macclurei, CFM; C. lanceolata- Alnus cremastogyne, CFA; C. lanceolata- Kalopanax septemlobus, CFK) on microbial community diversity. Microbial biomass (MBC) was assessed using chloroform fumigation-extraction. Using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), we examined the biodiversity within eubacterial (16S rRNA gene) and fungal (28S rRNA gene) species and two genes involved in N cycling: nifH and amoA. Microbial community diversities and microbial biomass decreased as NF was substituted by successive plantings of C. lanceolata plantations, whereas the trend reversed after introducing the broadleaf, M. macclurei, into pure C. lanceolata plantations. A strong positive correlation between MBC changes and total organic C (TOC), total organic N (TON), available N and extractable C (Cext) were seen, which suggests that MBC was tightly coupled with the content of soil organic matter. The Shannon index showed that bacterial diversity and two functional genes ( nifH and amoA) diversities associated with monospecific C. lanceolata plantations were lower than that of NF or mixed C. lanceolata plantations, such as CFM and CFA, whereas the opposite was seen for fungal diversity. Bacterial diversity was positively correlated with pH, TOC, TON, Cext and NH-N; while fungal diversity was positively correlated with C/N ratio and negatively correlated with pH. Both nitrogen fixing and ammonia oxidizing bacterial diversities were positively correlated with pH. Thus, soil pH was not only significantly positively correlated with bacterial diversity ( r = 0.502, P < 0.05), nifH gene diversity ( r = 0.564, P < 0.01) and amoA gene diversity ( r = 0.659, P < 0.001), but also negatively correlated with fungal diversity ( r = − 0.505, P < 0.05), which seemed to be responsible for the discrimination of the soil microbial communities among these plantations. These findings suggest that different silvicultural practices have significant impacts on the soil microbial community through influences on soil chemical properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mineralization of soil organic carbon (C) plays a key role in supplying nutrient elements essential to plant growth. Changes of C mineralization of mixed stands of Chinese fir and Michelia macclurei (a broadleaf tree), pure M. macclurei stands, and pure Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) stands established in 1983 after clear-felling of a first-generation Chinese fir forest were analyzed in Huitong, Hunan Province, China, and compared with those of a stand of native secondary evergreen broadleaf forest (NBF). The results showed that NBF soil had the greatest C mineralization. Mixture of Chinese fir and M. macclurei had no effect on total soil organic C in comparison with pure Chinese fir plantation, but significantly increased C mineralization from soils was detected in this study. This positive influence on C mineralization could be explained by the increase of soil labile C pools and soil microbial biomass and activity. From the analysis of C mineralization, soil microbial properties, and labile organic C, mixtures of broadleaf and Chinese fir can be considered to be an effective sustainable management model for a Chinese fir plantation. Given strong correlations with microbiological and biochemical characteristics of soils and an easier process of determination, hot water extraction, hot water-extractable C (HWC) could be used as an integrated measure of forest soil quality in mid-subtropics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One important mortality factor of Semanotus japonicus Lacordaire (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) larvae in the trunks of Cryptomeria japonica (L.f.) D. Don (Taxodiaceae) is the presence of oleoresin secreted from traumatic resin canals (TRCs) in the phloem. The present 2-yr investigation examined whether the extent of feeding in the phloem and/or the survival of S.japonicus larvae were negatively influenced by TRCs occurred by Epinotia granitalis (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) larval feeding when these larvae fed simultaneously in the same trunk. The survival of S. japonicus larvae until they reach the xylem, the damage to the xylem, and emergence were investigated. The occurrence of TRCs at the E. granitalis feeding sites was significantly higher at the 1-3-yr-old annual layer compared with nonfeeding sites, suggesting that E. granitalis feeding induces the occurrence. The extent of feeding in the phloem by S. japonicus larvae that were dead there tended to be shorter with number of E. granitalis feeding sites, but the extent of some larvae was long in spite of the existence of E. granitalis feeding, suggesting that larvae feeding opposite to E. granitalis feeding sites could not be influenced by TRCs occurred by E. granitalis. The survival of S. japonicus larvae until they reached xylem did not decrease with the number of E. granitalis feeding sites because preformed TRCs considerably influenced the survival, whereas the survival until damaging the xylem and until emerging decreased. These results indicate that E. granitalis feeding induces the occurrence of TRCs in C. japonica and negatively influences the feeding behavior and survival of S.japoniens, although the survival varies with the feeding direction in respect to E. granitalis feeding sites or the existence of preformed TRCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five new dimer compounds, namely Taiwaniacryptodimers A–E (1–5), were isolated from the methanol extract of the roots of Taiwania cryptomerioides. Their structures were established by mean of spectroscopic analysis and comparison of NMR data with those of known analogues. Their antifungal activities were also evaluated. Our results indicated that metabolites 1, 2, 4, and 5 displayed moderate antifungal activities against Aspergillus niger, Penicillium italicum, Candida albicans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Fossil remains of Taxodium from upper Eocene to lower Miocene localities in Germany, the Czech Republic and Russia are investigated to reconsider taxonomic concepts. It is demonstrated that all material belongs to one species which is named Taxodium dubium (Sternberg) Heer emend. Using the whole-plant concept, T. dubium is considered as a synthetic species comprising foliage, seed cones, seeds, and male cones with pollen in situ. Shared identity of T. dubium and the wood morpho-taxon Taxodioxylon taxodii Gothan is assumed. Taxodium dubium underwent evolutionary changes through the Oligocene expressed mainly in changes of the cone scale ornamentation. To designate this intraspecific variation taxonomically two morpho-formae are distinguished: T. dubium forma heerii (Dorofeev) Kunzmann, Kvaček, Mai et Walther stat. nov. et emend. and T. dubium forma dubium. Simultaneous intraspecific variations in leaf morphology and leaf epidermal anatomy are missing. Taxodium dubium occurs from the late Eocene to late Miocene in the (Atlantic-) Boreal province sensu Mai of Central Europe and from the late Oligocene to late Pliocene in the Transeuropean Paratethys province sensu Mai. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

To clarify patterns of clonal growth along a slope for Cryptomeria japonica (L.f.) D. Don, which can regenerate by layering resulting from snow pressure, we analyzed the spatial genetic structure with respect to slope position and in relation to stem size in a cool-temperate, old-growth mixed forest in the snowy region of Japan. For the genetic analysis, five polymorphic microsatellite markers developed for C. japonica were used. Spatial autocorrelation analyses revealed a significant positive association of ramets (trees) with the same genotype as the result of clonal growth at around <6 m regardless of slope position for understory trees (≥50 cm stem length and <10 cm diameter at breast height (DBH)). This clonal patch size almost corresponded to the clustering scale for overstory trees (≥10 cm DBH) belonging to the same genet. For understory trees in three subplots established along a slope, the size distribution of ramets within a clone (genet) followed an inverse J-shaped distribution without small ramets being distributed peripherally. These results suggest that each clone of C. japonica is maintained continuously in a relatively restricted area where it establishes, regardless of slope position, which could contribute to the high clonal and genetic diversity of C. japonica in this forest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Seven nor- and podocarpane-type diterpenes were isolated from the bark of Taiwania cryptomerioides Hayata, including three 18-nor-podocarpanes: 18-nor-1β,4α,14-trihydroxy-13-methoxy-8,11,13-podocarpatriene (1), 18-nor-1β,4α,13,14-tetrahydroxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-7-one (2), 18-nor-1β,4α,14-trihydroxy-13-methoxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-7-one (3), 1β,14,19-trihydroxy-13-methoxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-7-one (4), 1β,13,14,18-tetrahydroxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-7-one (5), 18-acetoxy-1β,13,14-trihydroxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-7-one (6), and 1β,14,18-trihydroxy-13-methoxy-8,11,13-podocarpatrien-7-one (7). Their structures were determined by application of 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and other techniques. Podocarpane-type diterpenes do not occur extensively in nature, and the presumed oxidative enzyme in this plant will be of interest to identify. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]