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Twisted and coiled polymer actuators (TCPAs) offer the advantages of large stroke and large specific work as compared to other actuators. There have been extensive experimental investigations towards understanding their actuation response, however, a computational model with full material description is not utilized to probe into the underlying mechanisms responsible for their large actuation. In this work, we develop a three-dimensional finite element model that includes the physics of the fabrication process to simulate the actuation of TCPA under various loading and boundary conditions. The model is validated against the experimental data and used to explore the factors responsible for actuation under free and isobaric conditions. The model captures the physics of the angle of twist in the fiber and the distinction between the homochiral and heterochiral nature of TCPA actuation response. The simulations show that the anisotropy in the thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) matrix plays a major role in large actuation irrespective of the anisotropy or isotropy in the elasticity tensor. We further investigate the extent of anisotropy in thermal expansion and the parametric studies show that the key for TCPA actuation is the absolute value of mismatch in thermal expansion even if the material has positive or negative CTE in both directions of the fiber. Furthermore, we propose a new shell-core composite-based TCPA concept by combining the epoxy and hollow Nylon tubes to suppress the creep in TCPA. The results show that the volume fraction of epoxy-core can be tuned to attain a desired actuation while offering a stiffer and creep-resistant response. This framework provides a wider application for probing various kinds of TCPAs and enhancing their actuation performance.

A symmetrically-buckled arch whose boundaries are clamped at an angle has two stable equilibria: an inverted and a natural state. When the distance between the clamps is increased (i.e. the confinement is decreased) the system snaps from the inverted to the natural state. Depending on the rate at which the confinement is decreased ('unloading'), the symmetry of the system during snap-through may change: slow unloading results in snap-through occurring asymmetrically, while fast unloading results in a symmetric snap-through. It has recently been shown [Wang et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 132, 267201 (2024)] that the transient asymmetry at slow unloading rates is the result of the amplification of small asymmetric precursor oscillations (shape perturbations) introduced dynamically to the system, even when the system itself is perfectly symmetric. In reality, however, imperfections, such as small asymmetries in the boundary conditions, are present too. Using numerical simulations and a simple toy model, we discuss the relative importance of intrinsic imperfections and initial asymmetric shape perturbations in determining the transient asymmetry observed. We show that, for small initial perturbations, the magnitude of the asymmetry grows in proportion to the size of the intrinsic imperfection but that, when initial shape perturbations are large, intrinsic imperfections are unimportant - the asymmetry of the system is dominated by the transient amplification of the initial asymmetric shape perturbations. We also show that the dominant origin of asymmetry changes the way that asymmetry grows dynamically. Our results may guide engineering and design of snapping beams used to control insect-sized jumping robots.

Rotating magnets have recently emerged as an efficient method for producing ultra-low frequency signals for through-earth and through-seawater communications. Magneto-mechanical resonator (MMR) arrays, which are magnetized torsional rotors with a restoring torque, are a promising implementation of this idea that use resonance to enhance the magnetic signal generation. The fundamental challenge for MMR design is to have a suspension system for the rotors capable of resisting large transverse magnetic forces while allowing for a large angle of motion at low dissipation and hence high efficiency. Here, we study flexure-based pivot bearings as compliant support elements for MMR rotors which address this challenge and demonstrate their efficient low damping operation. A crossed-flexure configuration enables large angular rotation around a central axis, large transverse stiffness, and compact assembly of closely spaced rotor arrays via geometric flexure interlocking. We characterize the eigen frequency performance and structural damping of MMR supported by these proposed pivot bearings. We develop analytical and numerical models to study their static and dynamic behaviors, including their coupled dynamic modes. We demonstrate that their damping coefficient is up to 80 times lower than corresponding ball bearing MMR. This study is broadly applicable to various systems that leverage arrays of coupled torsional oscillators such as magneto-mechanical transmitters, metamaterials, and energy harvesters., Comment: 26 pages, 12 figures

With the increasing adoption of metal additive manufacturing (AM), researchers and practitioners are turning to data-driven approaches to optimise printing conditions. Cross-sectional images of melt tracks provide valuable information for tuning process parameters, developing parameter scaling data, and identifying defects. Here we present an image segmentation neural network that automatically identifies and measures melt track dimensions from a cross-section image. We use a U-Net architecture to train on a data set of 62 pre-labelled images obtained from different labs, machines, and materials coupled with image augmentation. When neural network hyperparameters such as batch size and learning rate are properly tuned, the learned model shows an accuracy for classification of over 99% and an F1 score over 90%. The neural network exhibits robustness when tested on images captured by various users, printed on different machines, and acquired using different microscopes. A post-processing module extracts the height and width of the melt pool, and the wetting angles. We discuss opportunities to improve model performance and avenues for transfer learning, such as extension to other AM processes such as directed energy deposition., Comment: 21 pages, 10 figures

Twisted and coiled polymer actuators (TCPAs) generate large contractile mechanical work mimicking natural muscles, which makes them suitable for robotics and health-assistive devices. Understanding the mechanism of nylon TCPA remains challenging due to the interplay between their intricate geometry, chirality, residual stresses, and material microstructure. This study integrates a material microstructure model with rod theory to analytically predict the equilibrium helical shape of the nylon TCPA after fabrication and to explain the observed contraction mechanism upon stimulation. The first ingredient of the model is to treat nylon as a two-phase thermomechanical microstructure system capable of storing strain energy and exchanging it among the two phases. This is validated by characterizing the torsional actuation response of twisted and annealed nylon fibers. The second ingredient of the model is to use the classic Kirchhoff Rod Theory and add a necessary term that couples the bending and twisting energy. Validation with experiments shows that the model captures the equilibrium and longitudinal stiffness of the TCPA in both active and passive states, and the stimulated contraction under external load. Importantly, the model quantifies the influence of the stored energy level on the actuation performance. These concepts can be extended to other types of TCPAs and could enable new material design.

A snap-through bifurcation occurs when a bistable structure loses one of its stable states and moves rapidly to the remaining state. For example, a buckled arch with symmetrically clamped ends can snap between an inverted and a natural state as the ends are released. A standard linear stability analysis suggests that the arch becomes unstable to asymmetric perturbations. Surprisingly, our experiments show that this is not always the case: symmetric transitions are also observed. Using experiments, numerics, and a toy model, we show that the symmetry of the transition depends on the rate at which the ends are released with sufficiently fast loading leading to symmetric snap-through. Our toy model reveals that this behavior is caused by a region of the system's state space in which any initial asymmetry is amplified. The system may not enter this region when loaded fast (hence remaining symmetric) but will traverse it for some interval of time when loaded slowly, causing a transient amplification of asymmetry. Our toy model suggests that this behavior is not unique to snapping arches, but rather can be observed in dynamical systems where both a saddle-node and a pitchfork bifurcation occur in close proximity., Comment: 6 pages main text + 19 pages of supplementary material

On-chip phononic circuits tailor the transmission of elastic waves, which can couple to electronic and photonic systems, enabling new signal manipulation capabilities. Phononic circuits rely on waveguides that transmit elastic waves within desired frequency passbands, typically designed based on the Bloch modes of the waveguide constitutive cell, assuming linearity and periodicity. MEMS waveguides composed of coupled drumhead (membrane) resonators offer tunable MHz operation frequencies for applications in nonlinear optomechanics, topological insulators, phononic cavities, and acoustic switching. Here, we construct a reduced-order model (ROM) to demonstrate the switching of signal transmission in drumhead-resonator waveguides due to thermoelastic buckling. The ROM shows that buckling amplifies existing structural disorders, breaking the periodicity required for waveguide transmission through the first passband. This periodicity breaking manifests in the localization of the first-passband modes, like classical Anderson localization caused by disorders. The proposed ROM is essential to study the investigated phenomena since Bloch mode analysis fails for weakly-disordered (< 5%) finite waveguides due to the disorder amplification caused by the thermoelastic buckling. The illustrated transmission control should be useful for logical acoustic operations, like switching, and can be extended to 2D circuits in the future., Comment: 32 pages, 10 figures

Nonlinear micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) resonators open new opportunities in sensing and signal manipulation compared to their linear counterparts by enabling frequency tuning and increased bandwidth. Here, we design, fabricate and study drumhead resonators exhibiting strongly nonlinear dynamics and develop a reduced order model (ROM) to capture their response accurately. The resonators undergo electrostatically-mediated thermoelastic buckling which tunes their natural frequency from 4.7 to 11.3 MHz, a factor of 2.4x tunability. Moreover, the imposed buckling switches the nonlinearity of the resonators between purely stiffening, purely softening, and even softening-to-stiffening. Accessing these exotic dynamics requires precise control of the temperature and the DC electrostatic forces near the resonator's critical-buckling point. To explain the observed tunability, we develop a one-dimensional physics-based ROM that predicts the linear and nonlinear response of the fundamental bending mode of these drumhead resonators. The ROM captures the dynamic effects of the internal stresses resulting from three sources: The residual stresses from the fabrication process, the mismatch in thermal expansion between the constituent layers, and lastly, the applied electrostatic forces. The ROM replicates the observed tunability of linear (within 5.5% error) and nonlinear responses even near the states of critical buckling. These remarkable nonlinear and large tunability of the natural frequency are valuable features for on-chip acoustic devices in broad applications such as signal manipulation, filtering, and MEMS waveguides.

Magneto-mechanical transmitters offer a compact and low-power solution for the generation of ultra-low frequency (ULF) magnetic signals for through-ground and through-seawater communications. Resonant arrays of smaller magneto-mechanical transmitters are particularly interesting in this context as the physical scaling laws allow for the increase of operating frequency and reduce the power requirements for ULF signal generation. In this work, we introduce a generalized model for accurate prediction of frequency and mode shape in generalized magneto-mechanical resonator arrays (MMRAs) that accounts for near-field magnetic interactions as well as magnetically induced nonlinearity. Using experiments, we demonstrate that our predictive capability is significantly improved compared against simplified dipole approximations. We additionally model the eddy current losses internal to the array and find that they are in agreement with experimental observations., Comment: 12 pages, 8 figures, 6 tables

The diverse chemical and physical reactions encountered during cooking connect us to science every day. Here, we theoretically and experimentally investigate the swelling and softening of pasta due to liquid imbibition, as well as the elastic deformation and adhesion of pasta due to capillary force. As water diffuses into the pasta during cooking, it softens gradually from the outside inward as starch swells. The softening follows three sequential regimes: Regime I shows a slow decrease of modulus with cooking time; Regime II, the glassy to rubbery transition region, is characterized by very fast, several orders of magnitude drop in modulus; and regime III, the rubbery region, has an asymptotic modulus about four orders of magnitude lower than the raw pasta. We present experiments and theory to capture these regimes and relate them to the heterogeneous microstructure changes associated with swelling. Interestingly, we observe a modulus drop of two orders of magnitude within the range of 'al dente' cooking duration, and we find the modulus to be extremely sensitive to the amount of salt added to the boiling water. While most chefs can gauge the pasta by tasting its texture, our proposed experiment, which only requires a measurement with a ruler, can precisely provide an optimal cooking time finely tuned for various kinds of pasta shapes.

We present an analytical and experimental study of torsional magnetic mechanism where the restoring torque is due to magnetic field interactions between rotating and fixed permanent magnets. The oscillator consists of a ball bearing-supported permanent magnet, called the rotor, placed between two fixed permanent magnets called the stators. Perturbing the rotor from its equilibrium angle induces a restoring magnetic torque whose effect is modeled as a torsional spring. This restoring effect is accompanied by dissipation mechanisms arising from structural viscoelasticity, air and electromagnetic damping, as well as friction in the ball bearings. To investigate the system dynamics, we constructed an experimental setup capable of mechanical, electrical and magnetic measurements. For various rotor-stator gaps in this setup, we validated an analytical model that assumes viscous and dry (Coulomb) damping during the rotor free response. Moreover, we forced the rotor by a neighboring electromagnetic coil into high amplitude oscillations. We observed unusual resonator nonlinearity: at large rotor-stator gaps, the oscillations are softening; at reduced gaps, the oscillations stiffen-then-soften. The developed reduced-order models capture the nonlinear effects of the rotor-to-stator and the rotor-to-coil distances. These magnetic oscillators are promising in low-frequency electromagnetic signal transmission and in designing magneto-elastic metamaterials with tailorable nonlinearity., Comment: Journal manuscript submitted to Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing with 19 pages and 7 figures; The document includes supplemental material with 19 pages and 5 figures

Electromagnetic signals in the ultra-low frequency (ULF) range below 3 kHz are well suited for underwater and underground wireless communication thanks to low signal attenuation and high penetration depth. However, it is challenging to design ULF transmitters that are simultaneously compact and energy efficient using traditional approaches, e.g., using coils or dipole antennas. Recent works have considered magneto-mechanical alternatives, in which ULF magnetic fields are generated using the motion of permanent magnets, since they enable extremely compact ULF transmitters that can operate with low energy consumption and are suitable for human-portable applications. Here we explore the design and operating principles of resonant magneto-mechanical transmitters (MMT) that operate over frequencies spanning a few 10's of Hz up to 1 kHz. We experimentally demonstrate two types of MMT designs using both single-rotor and multi-rotor architectures. We study the nonlinear electro-mechanical dynamics of MMTs using point dipole approximation and magneto-static simulations. We further experimentally explore techniques to control the operation frequency and demonstrate amplitude modulation up to 10 bits-per-second., Comment: 10 pages, 9 figures

Manipulation of thin sheets by folding and cutting offers opportunity to engineer structures with novel mechanical properties, and to prescribe complex force-displacement relationships via material elasticity in combination with the trajectory imposed by the fold topology. We study the mechanics of cellular Kirigami that rotates upon compression, which we call Flexigami; the addition of diagonal cuts to an equivalent closed cell permits its reversible collapse without incurring significant tensile strains in its panels. Using finite-element modeling and experiment we show how the mechanics of flexigami is governed by the coupled rigidity of the panels and hinges and we design flexigami to achieve reversible force response ranging from smooth mono-stability to sharp bi-stability. We then demonstrate the use of flexigami to construct laminates with multi-stable behavior, a rotary-linear boom actuator, and self-deploying cells with activated hinges. Advanced digital fabrication methods can enable the practical use of flexigami and other metamaterials that share its underlying principles, for applications such as morphing structures, soft robotics and medical devices., Comment: 32 pages long (includes supplementary information), 5 figures in the main text, 4 figures in SI

Inspired by the synchronized beating of cilia, we show that the collective dynamics of hair-like fibers in a meniscus during fast drainage enables their self-organization into multiple topologies including complex shape inversions. By draining liquid from triangular-base hair bundles, we demonstrate their transformations into concave hexagons, rounded triangles, circles and inverted triangles. These topologically distinct shapes are quenched collective mode shapes of the beating hair each corresponding to specific drainage rates of the liquid, and cyclic shape re-transformations can be simply stimulated by repeated immersion and drainage. The various topologies correspond to multiple elastocapillary equilibria. Complex cellular materials with varying pore size and density can be obtained by changing the drain rates from hair assemblies. Due to its simple implementation and energy efficiency, these shape transformations can have applications ranging from three-dimensional lithography to smart multi-functional surfaces., Comment: 4 figures

We study impulse response in 1-D homogeneous micro-granular chains on a linear elastic substrate. Micro-granular interactions are analytically described by the Schwarz contact model which includes nonlinear compressive as well as snap-to/from-contact adhesive effects forming a hysteretic loop in the force deformation relationship. We observe complex transient dynamics, including disintegration of solitary pulses, local clustering and low- to high-frequency energy transfers resulting in enhanced energy dissipation. We study in detail the underlying dynamics of cluster formation in the impulsively loaded medium, and relate enhanced energy dissipation to the rate of cluster formation. These unusual and interesting dynamical phenomena are shown to be robust over a range of physically feasible conditions, and are solely scale effects, since they are attributed to surface forces, which have no effect at the macro-scale. We establish a universal relation between the re-clustering rate and the effective damping in these systems. Our findings demonstrate that scale effects generating new nonlinear features can drastically affect the dynamics and acoustics of micro-granular materials.

Vertically-aligned carbon nanotube (CNT) "forest" microstructures fabricated by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using patterned catalyst films typically have a low CNT density per unit area. As a result, CNT forests have poor bulk properties and are too fragile for integration with microfabrication processing. We introduce a new self-directed capillary densification method where a liquid is controllably condensed onto and evaporated from CNT forests. Compared to prior approaches, where the substrate with CNTs is immersed in a liquid, our condensation approach gives significantly more uniform structures and enables precise control of the CNT packing density and pillar cross-sectional shape. We present a set of design rules and parametric studies of CNT micropillar densification by this method, and show that self-directed capillary densification enhances the Young's modulus and electrical conductivity of CNT micropillars by more than three orders of magnitude. Owing to the outstanding properties of CNTs, this scalable process will be useful for the integration of CNTs as functional material in microfabricated devices for mechanical, electrical, thermal, and biomedical applications.