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Educators commonly consider praise an example of positive reinforcement. They are correct, but they may also be incorrect because the effect upon students of educators administering praise is influenced by the students themselves. Two situations, at least, exist where praise may not bring about its intended effect. Praise may be inappropriate when it is either perceived to be an evaluation or felt to be undeserved. For those perceiving praise as an evaluation, praise is something that has to be handled or coped with. Praise can also make the recipient feel manipulated. Those receiving praise that is felt to be undeserved must deal with mixed messages regarding their worth and with the perception that the sender of the message is lying. According to some of the literature, superior teachers are characterized by giving, among other things, only limited amounts of praise. Rather than spontaneously punctuating each student's actions with praise, teachers should become more informed, and thus more selective, in their use of praise. (JD)

This study was conducted to determine if those involved with vocational-technical students realize the importance of oral communication skills for votech graduates and to determine if those in a position to act on this awareness do so. Data were gathered from votech teachers, craft committee members (tradespersons advising votech school faculty and administration), co-op employers, and senior votech students, all associated with the Erie County Technical School (Pennsylvania). Respondents were asked to compare the relative importance of data, people, and things (categories described in the federal government's "Dictionary of Occupation Titles") by assigning percentages to them or by rating them on a one-to-five scale. Results revealed that the "people" category and oral communication skills were collectively considered as highly important to students' future job success. Results also revealed that votech teachers reported significantly less actual classroom attention to oral communication skills (only 32%) than indicated in their statements of its importance, and home school English teachers devoted only 24% of their time to teaching oral communication. Based on these findings, a workshop was conducted to sensitize home school English teachers to the particular nature of vocational education and the need for more direct teaching of oral communication to prepare students for the work environment. (Two tables of data are included; three appendixes containing surveys for votech and home school teachers and employers are attached.) (KEH)

Of the four simple consequences for behavior, none is more misunderstood than negative reinforcement. A Negative Reinforcement Quiz administered to 233 student teachers from two universities revealed that the vast majority of respondents mistakenly viewed negative reinforcement as a synonym for punishment, and believe that negative reinforcement is used to stop, not start, desired behaviors. Also, student teachers overwhelmingly stated that they would not consciously use negative reinforcement in the future. This paper documents that a misunderstanding exists concerning negative reinforcement, explains why the misunderstanding exists, and explores the consequences for classroom management if the misunderstanding is permitted to continue. (Author)

Within recent educational history, the needs of academic students have been attended to before the needs of vocational and technical students. Academic teachers must undergo a change in attitude toward the vocational-technical (votech) students and the careers they pursue. It is suggested in this paper that information concerning vocational education should be incorporated into the preservice teacher education courses in foundations of education. Preservice exposure to votech education would encompass three parts: (1) an orientation, including specific reference to the application of each of the educational foundation areas to a votech education; (2) a tour of a votech school; and (3) a wrap-up debriefing following the votech school visit. In addition to educating preservice teachers about votech education, there is a need to educate inservice teachers. Most important would be the education of secondary teachers who are called upon to teach English to votech students. A description is given to a 3-week period inservice program that has been successful in enlightening teachers on the career choices open to votech students. Three brief attachments relate oral communication skills to vocational education. (JD)

A study examined the way in which vocational and technical faculty and students perceive the effectiveness of French and Raven's five power bases. (To explain the way in which organizational control operates, French and Raven postulated the following five power bases: reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert power.) During the study, researchers surveyed 193 students from 10 home schools and 13 vocational and technical shops as well as 10 shop instructors. These individuals were asked to rank their perception of the frequency of use of each of the behavior control categories and to rate the effectiveness of each power base. Referent power far outranked the other power bases as the most effective means of control while punishment was ranked as the least effective control strategy. In terms of frequency of use, students felt that the vocational teachers used referent and expert power more frequently than did the home school teachers, while the home school teachers are perceived to use punishment far more frequently than the vocational teachers. Based on these findings, recommendations were made calling for shop instructors to do more to cultivate their expert power and to rely more heavily upon legitimate than on reward power. (Tables summarizing survey findings are appended.) (MN)