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The return of samples from known locations on Mars is among the highest priority goals of the international planetary science community. A possible scenario for Mars Sample Return (MSR) is a series of 3 missions: sample cache, fetch, and retrieval. The NASA Mars 2020 mission represents the first cache mission and was the focus of the CanMars analogue mission described in this paper. The major objectives for CanMars included comparing the accuracy of selecting samples remotely using rover data versus a traditional human field party, testing the efficiency of remote science operations with periodic pre-planned strategic observations (Strategic Traverse Days), assessing the utility of realistic autonomous science capabilities to the remote science team, and investigating the factors that affect the quality of sample selection decision-making in light of returned sample analysis. CanMars was conducted over two weeks in November 2015 and continued over three weeks in October and November 2016 at an analogue site near Hanksville, Utah, USA, that was unknown to the Mission Control Team located at the University of Western Ontario (Western) in London, Ontario, Canada. This operations architecture for CanMars was based on the Phoenix and Mars Exploration Rover missions together with previous analogue missions led by Western with the Mission Control Team being divided into Planning and Science sub-teams. In advance of the 2015 operations, the Science Team used satellite data, chosen to mimic datasets available from Mars-orbiting instruments, to produce a predictive geological map for the landing ellipse and a set of hypotheses for the geology and astrobiological potential of the landing site. The site was proposed to consist of a series of weakly cemented multi-coloured sedimentary rocks comprising carbonates, sulfates, and clays, and sinuous ridges with a resistant capping unit, interpreted as inverted paleochannels. Both the 2015 CanMars mission, which achieved 11 sols of operations, and the first part of the 2016 mission (sols 12–21), were conducted with the Mars Exploration Science Rover (MESR) and a series of integrated and hand-held instruments designed to mimic the payload of the Mars 2020 rover. Part 2 of the 2016 campaign (sols 22–39) was implemented without the MESR rover and was conducted exclusively by the field team as a Fast Motion Field Test (FMFT) with hand-carried instruments and with the equivalent of three sols of operations being executed in a single actual day. A total of 8 samples were cached during the 39 sols from which the Science Team prioritized 3 for “return to Earth”. Various science autonomy capabilities, based on flight-proven or near-future techniques intended for actual rover missions, were tested throughout the 2016 CanMars activities, with autonomous geological classification and targeting and autonomous pointing refinement being used extensively during the FMFT. Blind targeting, contingency sequencing, and conditional sequencing were also employed. Validation of the CanMars cache mission was achieved through various methods and approaches. The use of dedicated documentarians in mission control provided a detailed record of how and why decisions were made. Multiple separate field validation exercises employing humans using traditional geological techniques were carried out. All 8 of the selected samples plus a range of samples from the landing site region, collected out-of-simulation, have been analysed using a range of laboratory analytical techniques. A variety of lessons learned for both future analogue missions and planetary exploration missions are provided, including: dynamic collaboration between the science and planning teams as being key for mission success; the more frequent use of spectrometers and micro-imagers having remote capabilities rather than contact instruments; the utility of strategic traverse days to provide additional time for scientific discussion and meaningful interpretation of the data; the benefit of walkabout traverse strategies along with multi-sol plans with complex decisions trees to acquire a large amount of contextual data; and the availability of autonomous geological targeting, which enabled complex multi-sol plans gathering large suites of geological and geochemical survey data. Finally, the CanMars MSR activity demonstrated the utility of analogue missions in providing opportunities to engage and educate children and the public, by providing tangible hands-on linkages between current robotic missions and future human space missions. Public education and outreach was a priority for CanMars and a dedicated lead coordinated a strong presence on social media (primarily Twitter and Facebook), articles in local, regional, and national news networks, and interaction with the local community in London, Ontario. A further core objective of CanMars was to provide valuable learning opportunities to students and post-doctoral fellows in preparation for future planetary exploration missions. A learning goals survey conducted at the end of the 2016 activities had 90% of participants “somewhat agreeing” or “strongly agreeing” that participation in the mission has helped them to increase their understanding of the four learning outcomes.

Slopes in and around Thomas Lee Inlet (Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada) are eroded by means of gullying, yet the driving factors, such as the nature of the substrate and availability of different sources for water, influencing gully morphology remain poorly understood. Here we investigate the factors that contribute to gully formation using a combination of satellite mapping, field observations and statistical analysis of morphological data. In total, 161 gullies were mapped within the 126 km2 study area. Factors linked to gullies, such as the nature of its substrate and the presence of glaciers, were integrated into a spatial geodatabase. A Factor Analysis of Mixed Data performed on the geodatabase was used to discriminate which factors may influence gully geometry. Our results show that the type of geological formation has a strong impact on gully slope. In addition, supplemental sources of water are often found near alcoves of the steep, longer and mature gullies, and levees often form in their aprons. Immature debris flow‐like gullies were dryer and found on short and variable (from steep to gentle) slopes. This detailed study of the rocky and arid Thomas Lee Inlet plateaus and slopes provides the first insight into gullied slopes as a hydrological component connecting upland units to downslope in this area.

We envision that in the future, presentations for business, education, and scientific dissemination can invoke 3D spatial content to immersively display and discuss animated 3-dimensional models and spatial data visualizations to large audiences. At the moment, current frameworks have targeted a highly technical user base, prohibiting the widespread curation of immersive presentations. Furthermore, solutions for real-time multi-user interactions have focused on multiplayer gaming, rather than large format immersive presentation. However, modern mobile devices (smartphones, tablets, headsets) have the capability of rendering virtual models over the physical environment through visual anchors for Augmented Reality (AR). Our ongoing research thrust is to leverage contemporary AR infrastructure to develop an easy-to use tool for users to curate and spatially present augmented presentations to large audiences. In this demo, we have built an Augmented Reality framework that allows users to curate mixed reality presentations. Our framework allows users to prepare a sequential state of animations. At the time of presentation, presenters can invoke the animations to simultaneously occur on HMDs and mobile devices.

We use topographic data to show that impact craters with pitted floor deposits are among the deepest on Mars. This is consistent with the interpretation of pitted materials as primary crater-fill impactite deposits emplaced during crater formation. Our database consists of 224 pitted material craters ranging in size from ∼1 to 150 km in diameter. Our measurements are based on topographic data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) and the High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). We have used these craters to measure the relationship between crater diameter and the initial post-formation depth. Depth was measured as maximum rim-to-floor depth, ( d r ), but we also report the depth measured using other definitions. The database was down-selected by refining or removing elevation measurements from “problematic” craters affected by processes and conditions that influenced their d r /D, such as pre-impact slopes/topography and later overprinting craters. We report a maximum (deepest) and mean scaling relationship of d r = ( 0.347 ± 0.021 ) D 0.537 ± 0.017 and d r = ( 0.323 ± 0.017 ) D 0.538 ± 0.016 , respectively. Our results suggest that significant variations between previously-reported MOLA-based d r vs. D relationships may result from the inclusion of craters that: 1) are influenced by atypical processes ( e.g. , highly oblique impact), 2) are significantly degraded, 3) reside within high-strength regions, and 4) are transitional (partially collapsed). By taking such issues into consideration and only measuring craters with primary floor materials, we present the best estimate to date of a MOLA-based relationship of d r vs. D for the least-degraded complex craters on Mars. This can be applied to crater degradation studies and provides a useful constraint for models of complex crater formation.

A conceptual design is presented for a low complexity, heritage-based flyby mission to Io, Jupiter’s innermost Galilean satellite and the most volcanically active body in the Solar System. The design addresses the 2011 Decadal Surveys recommendation for a New Frontiers class mission to Io and is based upon the result of the June 2012 NASA-JPL Planetary Science Summer School. A science payload is proposed to investigate the link between the structure of Io’s interior, it’s volcanic activity, it’s surface composition, and it’s tectonics. A study of Io’s atmospheric processes and Io’s role in the Jovian magnetosphere is also planned. The instrument suite includes a visible/near IR imager, a magnetic field and plasma suite, a dust analyzer and a gimbaled high gain antenna to perform radio science investigations. Payload activity and spacecraft operations would be powered by three Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generators (ASRG). The primary mission includes 10 flybys with close-encounter altitudes as low as 100 km. The mission risks are mitigated by ensuring that relevant components are radiation tolerant and by using redundancy and flight-proven parts in the design. The spacecraft would be launched on an Atlas V rocket with a delta-v of 1.3 km/s. Three gravity assists (Venus, Earth, Earth) would be used to reach the Jupiter system in a 6-year cruise. The resulting concept demonstrates the rich scientific return of a flyby mission to Io.

International audience

International audience; We reanalyse the global distribution of gullies in order to provide a set of observational constraints that models of gully formation must explain. We validate our results derived from the global data with four detailed case studies. We show that the availability of steep slopes is an essential factor to consider when assessing the spatial distribution and abundance of gullies. When the availability of steep slopes is taken into account, it reveals, with a few exceptions, that gullies are found almost uniformly across the whole 30°–90° latitude band. Our analysis also reveals that massive ice deposits are anti-correlated with gullies, and that the undulations in the equatorwards limits of the gully distribution could be explained by longitudinal variations in maximum surface temperatures (controlled by variations in surface properties, including thermal inertia and albedo). We find a sharp transition in both hemispheres between pole-facing gullies, which extend from 30° to 40°, to a more mixed, but dominantly equator-facing orientation of gullies polewards of 40°. We have no definitive explanation for this transition but, based on previous studies, we suggest it could be linked to the availability of near-surface ice deposits.

We investigated the origin of the fan-shaped deposit at the end of Hypanis Valles that has previously been proposed as an ExoMars, Mars 2020, and human mission candidate landing site, and found evidence that the landform is an ancient delta. Previous work suggests that the deposit originated from a time of fluvial activity both distinct from and prior to catastrophic outflow, and crater counting placed the deposit’s age at ≥ 3.6 Ga. We found over 30 thin sedimentary strata in the proposed delta wall, and from our slope analysis conclude that the fluvial sequence is consistent with a lowering/retreating shoreline. We measured nearly horizontal bedding dip angles ranging from 0° to 2° over long stretches of cliff and bench exposures seen in HiRISE images and HiRISE stereo DTMs. From THEMIS night IR images we determined that the fan-shaped deposit has a low thermal inertia (150-240 Jm-2 K-1 s-1/2) and the surrounding darker-toned units correspond to thermal inertia values as high as 270-390 Jm-2 K-1 s-1/2. We interpret these findings to indicate that the fan-shaped deposit consists mostly of silt-sized and possibly finer grains, and that the extremely low grade and large lateral extent of these beds implies that the depositional environment was calm and relatively long-lived. We interpret the geomorphology and composition as incompatible with an alluvial fan or mudflow hypothesis. From our stratigraphic mapping we interpret the order of events which shaped the region. After the Chryse impact, sediment filled the basin, a confined lake or sea formed allowing a large delta to be deposited near its shoreline, the water level receded to the north, darker sedimentary/volcanic units covered the region and capped the light-toned deposit as hydro-volcanic eruptions shaped the interior of Lederberg crater, freeze/thaw cycles and desiccation induced local fracturing, and finally wrinkle ridges associated with rounded cones warped the landscape following trends in degraded crater rims and existing tectonic features. The ancient deltaic deposit we observe today was largely untouched by subsequent catastrophic outflows, and its surface has been only moderately reshaped by over 3 billion years of aeolian erosion.

This study aims to assess the spatial and visible/near-infrared (VNIR) colour/spectral capabilities of the 4-band Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) aboard the ExoMars 2016 Trace Grace Orbiter (TGO). The instrument response functions for the CaSSIS imager was used to resample spectral libraries, modelled spectra and to construct spectrally (i.e., in I/F space) and spatially consistent simulated CaSSIS image cubes of various key sites of interest and for ongoing scientific investigations on Mars. Coordinated datasets from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) are ideal, and specifically used for simulating CaSSIS. The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) provides colour information, while the Context Imager (CTX), and in a few cases the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE), provides the complementary spatial information at the resampled CaSSIS unbinned/unsummed pixel resolution (4.6 m/pixel from a 400-km altitude). The methodology used herein employs a Gram-Schmidt spectral sharpening algorithm to combine the ∼18–36 m/pixel CRISM-derived CaSSIS colours with I/F images primarily derived from oversampled CTX images. One hundred and eighty-one simulated CaSSIS 4-colour image cubes (at 18–36 m/pixel) were generated (including one of Phobos) based on CRISM data. From these, thirty-three “fully”-simulated image cubes of thirty unique locations on Mars (i.e., with 4 colour bands at 4.6 m/pixel) were made. All simulated image cubes were used to test both the colour capabilities of CaSSIS by producing standard colour RGB images, colour band ratio composites (CBRCs) and spectral parameters. Simulated CaSSIS CBRCs demonstrated that CaSSIS will be able to readily isolate signatures related to ferrous (Fe2+) iron- and ferric (Fe3+) iron-bearing deposits on the surface of Mars, ices and atmospheric phenomena. Despite the lower spatial resolution of CaSSIS when compared to HiRISE, the results of this work demonstrate that CaSSIS will not only compliment HiRISE-scale studies of various geological and seasonal phenomena, it will also enhance them by providing additional colour and geologic context through its wider and longer full-colour coverage ( $\sim9.4 \times 50$ km), and its increased sensitivity to iron-bearing materials from its two IR bands (RED and NIR). In a few examples, subtle surface changes that were not easily detected by HiRISE were identified in the simulated CaSSIS images. This study also demonstrates the utility of the Gram-Schmidt spectral pan-sharpening technique to extend VNIR colour/spectral capabilities from a lower spatial resolution colour/spectral dataset to a single-band or panchromatic image greyscale image with higher resolution. These higher resolution colour products (simulated CaSSIS or otherwise) are useful as means to extend both geologic context and mapping of datasets with coarser spatial resolutions. The results of this study indicate that the TGO mission objectives, as well as the instrument-specific mission objectives, will be achievable with CaSSIS.

Since the discovery of gullies on Mars nearly two decades ago, their study has evolved significantly. Initially, they were hailed as evidence of active liquid water martian aquifers; were this assumption valid, the aquifers could represent a significant reservoir of liquid water. This conclusion was tempered by global data, revealing intriguing climatic signals interpreted to signify an episodic top-down melting scenario, indicating a more modest hydrosphere. Recently, authors have favored completely dry gully formation engendered by an exotic solid CO2 sublimation mechanism never before observed on any other planetary surface suggesting a desert planet. This chapter will not only review these end-member formation hypotheses but also will critically examine them in light of all currently available population-scale data and new climate simulations. We conclude that neither water nor CO2 can explain the observational data for martian gullies, but that water is consistent with more of the observational data.

The spectral behavior of gypsum dehydration in the visible to near-infrared (350???2500 nm) wavelength range was investigated by partially dehydrating the four main habits of gypsum (alabaster, satin spar, selenite, and massive) to form bassanite. Powdered samples of gypsum dehydrated at 100???115 ??C and hand samples dehydrated at 115???130 ??C, coinciding with a peak in mass (water) loss in the samples. As gypsum dehydrates, its characteristic H2O absorption bands at 1443 and 1945 nm shift to shorter wavelengths. Band depths and widths of absorptions at ~1200, 1400???1600, 1750, 1945, 2100???2200, and ~2400 nm all decrease with increasing temperature. The samples also underwent visible changes upon dehydration, both at the macroscopic and microscopic level, becoming very friable with an increase in fine grains. No consistent relationship was observed between dehydration temperature and grain size or habit. The samples were monitored for up to 20 months after dehydration, during which time none rehydrated to form gypsum. While the transition from gypsum to bassanite is very abrupt, bassanite does not readily rehydrate to form gypsum again in ambient conditions, and therefore may not be as unstable as previously thought by terrestrial occurrences of bassanite being predominantly restricted to hyperarid climates.

We report on high-resolution spectra of the two recurring novae, T CrB and RS Oph, obtained in 2004 when no outbursts were in progress. Selected regions of the spectra between 6500 and 8800 A were measured for equivalent widths and analyzed for metallicity. Lines of Fe I, Ni I, Si I, and Ti I were used to establish the effective temperature. The metallicity as derived using models is near solar with an uncertainty estimated to be near a factor of 2 for both stars. Both stars show a strong lithium line at 6707.8 A. Approximate Li abundances were derived using model atmospheres for a direct comparison with the nearby Fe I line at 6710.31 A and the Ca I ground level line at 6572.78 A. The Li abundances are near log N(Li) = 1.2 for RS Oph and 0.8 for T CrB on the scale of log N(H) = 12.0. Such Li abundances are high for single K and M giants. A survey of symbiotic stars with cool components of types K and M showed no recognizable Li line in 28 stars with high quality spectra. This makes the two repeating novae different from the other symbiotics that consist of a red giant and a white dwarf.

usc Hypotheses ranging from fluvial processes and debris flows to CO2 frost-lubricated or entirely dry flows have been proposed for the formation of martian gullies. In order to constrain these potential formation mechanisms, we mapped the global distribution of gullies on Mars using >54,000 images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) covering ∼85% of the martian surface at a resolution of ∼6 m/pixel. The results of this mapping effort confirm the results of studies using lower resolution and/or less areally extensive datasets that gullies are confined to the martian mid- to high-latitudes (∼30–80° in both hemispheres). We also find a clear transition in gully orientation with increasing latitude, going from poleward-facing to equator-facing preference. In general, gullies are more developed on poleward-facing walls, and mid-latitude gullies are more developed than those at higher latitudes. Gullies are also found to be strongly correlated with regions of distinct thermophysical properties of sand- to pebble-sized grains, low albedo, and higher thermal inertia. These observations all point to climate, insolation, and thermal properties of the substrate playing key factors in gully formation on Mars, supporting either a melting ground ice or snowpack hypothesis as the source for water involved in gully formation. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Martian Impact Impact craters form frequently on Mars, exposing material that would otherwise remain hidden below the surface. Byrne et al. (p. 1674 ) identified mid-latitude craters that formed over the last few years, imaged them in great detail with a camera on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and monitored subsequent changes. The craters excavated buried water ice, which was later seen sublimating away. In addition, some craters might have excavated completely through the ice. The observations are consistent with models and other observations that suggest water ice should be stable decimeters to about 1 meter below the martian surface at latitudes poleward of about 40°; and suggest that, in the recent past, Mars had a wetter atmosphere than at present.

[1] Lyot Crater is one of the youngest impact basins > 200 km in diameter on Mars. Although published hydrological models suggest that impact-related groundwater release might have occurred at Lyot, no geomorphic evidence for such activity has been previously identified. Here, we use images acquired predominantly by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) Context Camera (CTX) and Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging Spectrometer (THEMIS) visible and infrared subsystems to document an extensive channeled scabland extending to the north, west, and east of Lyot, covering an area of ∼300,000 km2. The configuration and morphology suggests that the channel-forming fluid was water derived from the target substrate and/or the surrounding terrain. Possible formation mechanisms are groundwater mobilization by seismic energy from the impact event and dewatering of the ejecta blanket.