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Objective: to assess sleep habits and sleep quality perception in a Colombian and Mexican youthsample. Materials and methods: following a sleep diary methodology with a questionnaire of 27categorical and quantitative items, the assessment was done immediately upon awakening. Results:it was applied to 317 high school (n= 189) and undergrads (n= 128) in Bogotá, Colombia (n= 197)and México City, México (n= 120); 147 females (46,4%) and 170 males (53,6%). The mean agewas 18,6 ± 2,81 years with a median and mode of 17 years. The Cronbach’s alpha obtained from135 measurements during the study period was 0,86 and 0,57 from the mean values of 27 scaleitems. An inverse correlation was found between hours of sleep per night and number of naps (r=-0,12; p= 0,029); 38% of participants did not nap and slept on average 7,6 night hours or more(X2= 2,78; p= 0,047). The men took more naps than women (men 76,5%; women 55,6%; X2=15,26; p= 0,000). A reduction of hours of sleep per night and the need for naps was significantlyassociated with participants’ gender. The mean and median hours of sleep per night (7,2 hours)was used to classify the population into two groups: sleep (+) 7,3 or more hours and sleep (-) 7,2hours or less. These groups were compared. Conclusions: youth population evaluated showed areduction of hours of sleep per night. This was associated to naps frequency and participant gender.

Introduction. Whenever a new scale is created or translated from another language, it must be validated, establishing its reliability for the new population where it will be used. Sleep quality concept is a construct that can be evaluated using self-report scales. Resulting elements vary depending on the individuals surveyed. This type of evaluation is mainly subjective and includes quantitative aspects such as sleep duration, number of awakenings, latency time, and qualitative aspects such as rest sensation, mood and oneiric content (Valencia, 2000). In the present study we made a critical review of the sleep scales designed for child, adolescent and adult populations that have been validated and the difficulties they might present. Methodology. Between September 2005 and May 2006 a bibliographical search was made within pub med, ovid and the data base of the periodical and book library of the Ramon de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, using and combining the following key words: sleep, sleep questionnaire, sleep scale, sleep inventory, adolescent, adolescent sleep scale. The most relevant papers to our study were selected. The search was limited to Spanish and English articles, although there was no year or geographical origin limit. Articles that did not include clinometrical data where excluded. Conclusions. Based on our bibliographical search and our discussion, we suggested the design and validation of a Spanish scale to evaluate adolescent population which avoids a time interval between awakening and the answering of the instrument in order to decrease recall bias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This retrospective case series aims to describe the ophthalmic manifestations of the Monkeypox virus infection in seven patients evaluated in two countries of South America (Colombia and Brazil). Two had skin lesions in the eyelid, and five had conjunctivitis. None had intraocular involvement. Three of seven patients had a history of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection, and all patients had lesions in the genital region, suggesting sexual-contact transmission. In 6 of 7 cases, conjunctival RT-PCR was positive for the Monkeypox virus, including one case without conjunctival vesicles. In all cases, lesions resolved without complications, and just two required antiviral treatment. All patients demonstrated improvement without complications. RT-PCR positivity in conjunctiva demonstrated the presence of the Monkeypox virus, suggesting that ocular-mediated transmission could be plausible. Ophthalmologists should be aware of this ophthalmic manifestation.

Objective: In this review, we examined if there is a deficit in facial recognition of emotion (FER) in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)., Background: Emotional regulation is impaired in ADHD. Although a facial emotion recognition deficit has been described in this condition, the underlying causal mechanisms remain unclear., Methods: The search was performed in six databases in September 2022. Studies assessing children, adolescents, or adults with isolated or comorbid ADHD that evaluated participants using a FER task were included., Results: Twelve studies out of 385 were selected, with participants ranging in age from 6 to 37.1 years. A deficit in FER specific to ADHD, or secondary to comorbid autism spectrum disorder, anxiety, and oppositional symptoms, was found., Conclusions: There is a FER deficit in patients with ADHD. Adults showed improved recognition accuracy, reflecting partial compensation. ADHD symptoms and comorbidities appear to influence FER deficits.

This systematic review describes the effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on children's learning and school performance. A systematic search was conducted using three databases. A total of 1787 articles were found, and 24 articles were included. Overall, academic performance was negatively affected by COVID-19 lockdowns, with lower scores in standardized tests in the main domains compared to previous years. Academic, motivational, and socio-emotional factors contributed to lower performance. Educators, parents, and students reported disorganization, increased academic demands, and motivational and behavioral changes. Teachers and policymakers should consider these results in developing future education strategies., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2023 The Authors.)

Background: To describe the ocular features of a cohort of children with Down Syndrome (DS) in Bogotá, Colombia., Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study, evaluating 67 children with DS. A pediatric ophthalmologist performed a complete optometric and ophthalmological evaluation of each child, including visual acuity, ocular alignment, external eye examination, biomicroscopy, auto-refractometry, retinoscope in cycloplegia, and fundus examination. Results were reported as frequency distribution tables with percentages for categorical variables and means and standard deviation or median and interquartile ranges for continuous variables, according to their distribution. We used the Chi-square test or Fisher's exact test for categorical variables and ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis for continuous variables when indicated., Results: A total of 134 eyes from 67 children were evaluated. Males represented 50.7%. The children's age ranged from 8-16 years, with a mean of 12.3 (SD 2.30). The most frequent refractive diagnosis per eye was hyperopia (47%), followed by myopia (32.1%) and mixed astigmatism (18.7%). The most frequent ocular manifestations were oblique fissure (89.6%), followed by amblyopia (54.5%) and lens opacity (39.4%). Female sex was associated with strabismus (P = 0.009) and amblyopia (P = 0.048)., Conclusion: Our cohort had a high prevalence of disregarded ophthalmological manifestations. Some of these manifestations, such as amblyopia, can be irreversible and severely affect the neurodevelopment of DS children. Therefore, ophthalmologists and optometrists should be aware of the visual and ocular affection of children with DS to assess and provide appropriate management. This awareness could improve rehabilitation outcomes for these children., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Objectives: Increased exposure to digital devices as part of online classes increases susceptibility to visual impairments, particularly among school students taught using e-learning strategies. This study aimed to identify the impact of remote learning during the COVID-19 lockdown on children's visual health., Design: Systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines., Data Sources: Scopus, PubMed and ScienceDirect databases from the year 2020 onwards., Eligibility Criteria: We included cross-sectional, case-control, cohort studies, case series and case reports, published in English, Spanish or French, that approached the effects of remote learning during the COVID-19 lockdown on visual health in neurotypical children., Data Extraction and Synthesis: We included a total of 21 articles with previous quality assessments using the Joanna Briggs checklist. Risk of bias assessment was applied using the National Institutes of Health quality assessment tool for before-and-after studies with no control group; the tool developed by Hoy et al to assess cross-sectional studies; the Murad et al tool to evaluate the methodological quality of case reports and case series; and the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for cohort studies., Results: All but one study reported a deleterious impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on visual health in children. Overall, the most frequently identified ocular effects were refractive errors, accommodation disturbances and visual symptoms such as dry eye and asthenopia., Conclusions: Increased dependence on digital devices for online classes has either induced or exacerbated visual disturbances, such as rapid progression of myopia, dry eye and visual fatigue symptoms, and vergence and accommodation disturbances, in children who engaged in remote learning during the COVID-19 lockdown., Prospero Registration Number: CRD42022307107., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Human rabies has been described by various cultures in many countries around the world. Gabriel García Márquez's novel Of love and other demons recounts the story of a girl who, in colonial Colombia in the 18 th century, was bitten by a rabid dog. This paper aims to review the general status of the disease in Colombia and interweave it with García Márquez's book. Developed countries have successfully controlled dog-mediated rabies virus transmission, whereas in some countries in Latin America wildlife and canine rabies are still an issue. Our approach suggests that although the measures that have been taken to mitigate dog-transmitted rabies have worked well in most parts of the world, greater efforts are required to control sylvatic rabies transmitted by bats or other mammals, as occurs in Colombia. Since developing countries are the most affected by the disease at present, transdisciplinary commitment between human and veterinary sectors is necessary to fight against rabies virus transmission., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2022 The Author(s).)

Background: Down syndrome (DS) is a chromosomal anomaly that is characterized by an extra chromosome 21. Ophthalmological manifestations have a high prevalence in patients with DS., Purpose: To review the scientific evidence and estimate the prevalence of ophthalmological manifestations in the pediatric population with DS., Data Sources: Electronic databases including MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, ScienceDirect, and LILACS., Study Eligibility Criteria: Published observational studies with available and original data were included. Articles were excluded if the study design was a review, letter to the editor, case report, case series, or systematic review and if the subjects had ophthalmological manifestations secondary to other conditions., Participants and Interventions: Pediatric and adolescent population with DS and with ophthalmological evaluation., Study Appraisal and Synthesis Methods: A data collection form was designed in Excel. Five reviewers extracted relevant details about the design and results of each study. The quality of the studies was assessed by applying the tools for systematic reviews of prevalence and incidence from the Joanna Briggs Institute. We calculated the weighted prevalence of ophthalmological manifestations, considering only the studies reporting the measurement of each manifestation., Results: Twenty-two articles (from 15 countries, published during 1994-2020) were included in the present systematic review. Ocular manifestations were observed in 85% of the studied pediatric and adolescent populations with DS. The most frequent ones were slanting fissures, oblique fissures, epicanthus, and epiblepharon., Conclusion: The ocular manifestations in the pediatric and adolescent populations with DS are varied, and some can irreversibly affect visual development. Screening of the pediatric population with DS should be conducted from the first months of age and continued annually., Systematic Review Registration: PROSPERO CRD42019127717., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction. Common genetic variation appears to play a key role in the development of this condition. In this systematic review, we describe the relationship between genetic variations and autism. We created a gene dataset of the genes involved in the pathogenesis of autism and performed an over-representation analysis to evaluate the biological functions and molecular pathways that may explain the associations between these variants and the development of ASD., Results: 177 studies and a gene set composed of 139 were included in this qualitative systematic review. Enriched pathways in the over-representation analysis using the KEGG pathway database were mostly associated with neurotransmitter receptors and their subunits. Major over-represented biological processes were social behavior, vocalization behavior, learning and memory. The enriched cellular component of the proteins encoded by the genes identified in this systematic review were the postsynaptic membrane and the cell junction., Conclusions: Among the biological processes that were examined, genes involved in synaptic integrity, neurotransmitter metabolism, and cell adhesion molecules were significantly involved in the development of autism., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

In this scoping review, we examined the association between maternal nutrition during pregnancy and neurodevelopment in offspring. We searched the Pubmed and ScienceDirect databases for articles published from 2000 to 2020 on inadequate intake of vitamins (B12, folate, vitamin D, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K), micronutrients (cooper, iron, creatine, choline, zinc, iodine), macronutrients (fatty acids, proteins), high fat diets, ketogenic diets, hypercaloric diets, and maternal undernutrition. Some older relevant articles were included. The search produced a total of 3590 articles, and 84 studies were included in the qualitative synthesis. Data were extracted and analyzed using charts and the frequency of terms used. We concluded that inadequate nutrient intake during pregnancy was associated with brain defects (diminished cerebral volume, spina bifida, alteration of hypothalamic and hippocampal pathways), an increased risk of abnormal behavior, neuropsychiatric disorders (ASD, ADHD, schizophrenia, anxiety, depression), altered cognition, visual impairment, and motor deficits. Future studies should establish and quantify the benefits of maternal nutrition during pregnancy on neurodevelopment and recommend adequate supplementation.

The study aim was to characterize executive function in 114 children with Down syndrome from a reference institution in Bogotá, Colombia. Children were screened with the Battelle Developmental Inventory to establish their developmental age. Eighty children with an equivalent mental age of 2-5.11 years were allocated to groups of 20 according to their mental age. Parents and teachers then completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version. We found a high variability and a low correlation between parent and teacher ratings. In general, children showed a specific profile characterized by weakness in the domains of working memory, shifting, planning, and organization, and strengths in the emotional control domain. These findings indicate a characteristic pattern of executive function in children with Down syndrome. This profile could form the basis for the planning of clinical assessment programs., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: Congenital amusia is a rare neurogenetic and neuropsychological condition which hinders the ability to recognize variations in all aspects of a musical piece. Although previous studies have determined the prevalence of congenital amusia in the general population, few have studied its presence among university students. Findings regarding the association between this condition and academic performance are equivocal, although evidence suggests that musical training improves scholastic achievement., Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study on a sample of 383 university students, all pursuing health-related degrees, comparing their class rank with their performance on the BRAMS Online Test for amusia., Results: We found a prevalence of 0.52% for pitch-based amusia. When applying the Off-Scale test failure criterion for the definition of amusia in our sample, we found a prevalence of 4.4%. Logistic models showed an increase in risk of poor academic performance (lowest quartile) in subjects who failed the off-scale test (Odds Ratio: 7.14 95% CI 2.59-19.6) and who met any of the described definitions of amusia (Odds Ratio: 4.89 95% CI 2.24-10.7)., Conclusions: Both musical training and self-report of musical ability significantly affected test results. Although musical education shows some effect over academic performance, further studies are required to determine if this is due to differential effects in subjects with and without amusia., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Congenital amusia is a specific condition in which the individual is unable to recognise tonal variations in a piece of musical. This cannot be explained by a previous brain injury, hearing loss, cognitive deficit, socio-affective disorder or lack of environmental stimulation. The current estimated prevalence is 1.5% of the world population, with a significant genetic component among those who suffer from it. It has been claimed that certain cognitive abilities in the emotional, spatial and language fields may be affected in people with amusia., Aim: To review the literature describing the effects on non-musical skills that may coexist in individuals with congenital amusia., Development: Several neuroimaging studies have observed morphological and functional changes in the temporal lobe, as well as in the white matter connections between the superior temporal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus. From these affected regions, there may be a deficit in cognitive skills related to adjacent areas., Conclusions: Congenital amusia has been associated with poor performance in different non-musical cognitive skills, such as visuospatial processing, language processing, reading difficulties, face recognition and emotional aspects.

Background: Malnutrition has been identified as a factor in growth and learning. The current study aimed to determine the nutritional status and basic learning skills of children from Chocó, Colombia., Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 631 children aged 5-11 years from two schools, collecting anthropometric measurements, nutritional quality surveys and sociodemographic data. Neuropsychological batteries were applied., Results: A total of 523 children were evaluated, with an average age of 8.49 ± 2.1 years. The results revealed that 2.9% of children were underweight, 0.4% were severely underweight, and 4.8% were diagnosed as having stunted growth. In addition, 71.8% of children were unable to draw a human figure. Beery-Buktenica Visual-Motor Integration test (VMI) performance was below the scores expected for these age groups in 73.9% of children. Battery of Differential and General Abilities (BADYG) performance revealed limited verbal skills. In a subsample of 117 children, anemia was detected in 12.8% of cases, and iron deficiency was present in 44.4% of cases. Global malnutrition was associated with impairments in BADYG performance (OR: 1.98; 95% CI: 1.07-3.86)., Conclusions: The current results revealed that learning performance was below the expected level for children in these age groups across all of the applied tests. Although malnutrition could partially explain the poor performance of children in tests of learning abilities, additional factors are likely to be involved., (© 2020 The Authors.)

Introduction: Children with Down syndrome have a higher prevalence of hearing disorders, secondary to anatomical and physiological variations. No universal hearing screening is implemented in Colombia, so there are no data available on the prevalence of hearing loss in this population. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency and type of such disorders in this population based on hearing tests., Patients and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at two institutions specialized in accompanying and supporting the families of children with Down syndrome in Bogotá, D.C., Colombia. Between October 2017 and September 2018, a behavioral and/or pure-tone audiometry and an impedance audiometry were done in 40 and 37 children respectively. Subjects attended the institutions twice a week and were integrated at school, up to fifth grade. Prevalence was estimated and characteristics, clinical history, and language developmental milestones were described., Results: The sample was made up of 40 children (22 girls) aged 6-18 years (mean: 11.23). A history of otitis was found in 19 children and of mild to moderate hearing loss, in 17, predominately conductive. A delay in language developmental milestones was observed, apparently not associated with hearing loss., Conclusions: A sample of children with Down syndrome from Bogotá showed a high prevalence of hearing loss, consistent with the results of previous studies. These data stress the need for a strict control of hearing status based on standardized parameters and guidelines., Competing Interests: The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work., (Sociedad Argentina de Pediatría.)

Disease and medicine are found throughout Gabriel García Márquez's work. This article examines the insomnia plague described in the novel One Hundred Years of Solitude and performs a differential diagnosis exercise with conditions that affect both sleep and memory. The main finding is that the insomnia plague narrated by García Márquez, with its clinical manifestations, the sequence of symptoms, and its resolution, cannot be associated with any specific diagnosis. However, similarities to and differences from several clinical conditions are discussed, as well as the relation between the neurophysiologic phenomena of sleep and memory.

Purpose: To evaluate if music characteristics like tempo, harmony, melody, instrumentation, volume, and pitch, as defined by musical theory, are described in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) evaluating the effects of music-listening on the quantified pain perception of adults, and if these characteristics influence music's overall therapeutic effect., Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs evaluating music-listening for pain management on adults was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses statement. The databases Pubmed, Scopus, SCIELO, SpringerLink, Global Health Library, Cochrane, EMBASE, and LILACS were searched. Studies published between 2004 and 2017 with quantified measurements of pain were included. Quality was evaluated using the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network methodology checklist for RCT, and effect sizes were reported with standardized mean differences., Results: A total of 85 studies were included for qualitative analysis but only 56.47% described at least one music characteristic. Overall meta-analysis found a significant effect, with high heterogeneity, of music for pain management (SMD -0.59, I2 = 85%). Only instrumentation characteristics (lack of lyrics, of percussion or of nature sounds), and 60-80 bpm tempo were described sufficiently for analysis. All three instrumentation characteristics had significant effects, but only the lack of lyrics showed an acceptable heterogeneity., Conclusions: Results show that music without lyrics is effective for the management of pain. Due to insufficient data, no ideal music characteristics for the management of pain were identified suggesting that music, as an intervention, needs standardization through an objective language such as that of music theory., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To synthesize the results of controlled studies evaluating the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) in children., Methods: Eleven databases were searched following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses statement recommendations, and references from included studies and previous reviews were examined. No date or language filters were applied. Only controlled study designs, including those using wait-list controls, that studied a specific condition or illness were included. Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool., Results: Twenty-six studies that met the inclusion criteria were retrieved. Nine were conducted in children with autism spectrum disorders, 10 in cerebral palsy (CP), 2 in Down syndrome, 3 in pain, and 2 in other conditions. Qualitative synthesis showed a small but significant contribution of AAT to the management of these conditions. Meta-analysis showed a mean difference in improvement in the Gross Motor Function Measure-66 scale in children with CP of 1.61 (95% confidence interval [CI] -2.00 to 5.23) and a mean difference for 5-point pain scales of -0.81 (95% CI -1.32 to 0.30), both favoring AAT., Conclusion: Animal-assisted therapy may be useful as a complementary intervention in the management of children with CP and pain. Although results are in general positive for the management of children with Down syndrome and autism, the diversity of scales used to measure outcomes makes it difficult to establish true effectiveness. The application of simple corrective measures in the randomization process would greatly improve the quality of evidence. It is necessary to reach a consensus between AAT researchers regarding appropriate instruments to provide higher-quality evidence in further studies.

Animal-assisted therapies have become widespread with programs targeting a variety of pathologies and populations. Despite its popularity, it is unclear if this therapy is useful. The aim of this systematic review is to establish the efficacy of Animal assisted therapies in the management of dementia, depression and other conditions in adult population. A search was conducted in MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS, ScienceDirect, and Taylor and Francis, OpenGrey, GreyLiteratureReport, ProQuest, and DIALNET. No language or study type filters were applied. Conditions studied included depression, dementia, multiple sclerosis, PTSD, stroke, spinal cord injury, and schizophrenia. Only articles published after the year 2000 using therapies with significant animal involvement were included. 23 articles and dissertations met inclusion criteria. Overall quality was low. The degree of animal interaction significantly influenced outcomes. Results are generally favorable, but more thorough and standardized research should be done to strengthen the existing evidence., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aim: This study aims to analyze and describe the effects of music listening in the management of pain in adult patients, as reported in systematic reviews and meta-analysis., Methods: A search of articles published between 2004 and 2017 was conducted on Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, SCIELO, SpringerLink, Global Health Library, Cochrane, EMBASE and LILACS. Search, quality assessment, and data extraction was done independently by two researchers., Results: Most of reviews found a significant effect of music on pain. All analyses had a high heterogeneity, and only acute pain and music delivered under general anesthesia had moderate heterogeneity. No differences were found when music was chosen by the patient. Music type and its characteristics are scantly described and in terms that lack validity., Conclusions: More focused trials and reviews, objective language for music, and trials with music chosen by its characteristics are required., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Jacqueline du Pré was a British cellist, famous for her masterful interpretations and her passionate style of playing. Her outstanding musical career was, unfortunately, cut short by multiple sclerosis. In the present paper, we conduct a historical and medical analysis of her life story, discussing a few aspects regarding her illness and treatment options available at the time of her diagnosis.

We describe a case of a six-year-old girl who presents multiple dysmorphic features characteristic of Down's syndrome. She has a significant general developmental delay, with a score that correspond to 32 months of developmental age. This delay is especially in language, with a very scant vocabulary. She communicates with some hand sign words or pointing, although her auditory responses in hearing test were normal. Two previous karyotype studies showed 47, XXX, +21 anomalies. This double trisomy is a rare condition described in isolated cases in the literature and none of these refers to the developmental aspects of these children (Balwan et al. 2008; Li et al. 2004; Park et al. 1995; Day et al. 1963).

Introduction: Multiple studies of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have recognised a heritability factor in that a higher frequency of the disorder is observed in children with an affected relative. Our aim was to determine the association between ADHD symptoms in young children enrolled in five schools in Bogota and a history of ADHD symptoms in their parents using the Wender-Utah Rating Scale., Methodology: Case-control study of participants selected according to DSM-IV criteria for ADHD and the Behavioral Assessment System for Children (BASC) completed by parents and teachers; the WISC-IV scale was used to exclude children with cognitive deficit. Parents completed the Wender-Utah Rating Scale to retrospectively identify any ADHD symptoms in childhood. A score of 36 was used as a cutoff point., Results: The study included 202 children: 117 cases and 85 controls. A positive history of ADHD symptoms in childhood was identified for 16% of 175 mothers and 20.6% of 141 fathers. The presence of symptoms in either parent, especially the mother, constitutes a significant risk factor for ADHD in children and this relationship persists after controlling for different variables. If both parents have the disorder, the risk tends to increase., Conclusion: Although ADHD has been linked to a genetic component, other environmental factors may be involved in the disorder., (Copyright © 2015 Sociedad Española de Neurología. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Although cognitive and learning disorders have been described in patients with epilepsy, very few studies focus on specific disorders such as absence epilepsy. The aim of this study was to evaluate learning skills and academic performance in children and adolescents with absence epilepsy., Methods: Observational case-control study. Cases were chosen from the Central League against Epilepsy's clinic in Bogotá, Colombia. Controls were selected from a private school and matched with cases by age, school year, and sex. Medical history, seizure frequency, antiepileptic treatment, and academic performance were assessed. Academic abilities were tested with Batería de Aptitudes Diferenciales y Generales (BADyG) (a Spanish-language test of differential and general aptitudes). Data were analysed using Student t-test., Results: The sample consisted of 19 cases and 19 controls aged between 7 and 16. In 15 patients, seizures were controlled; all patients had received antiepileptic medication at some point and 78.9% were actively being treated. Although cases had higher rates of academic failure, a greater incidence of grade retention, and more therapeutic interventions than controls, these differences were not significant. Similarly, there were no significant differences on the BADyG test, except for the immediate memory subcategory on which cases scored higher than controls (P=.0006)., Conclusion: Children treated pharmacologically for absence epilepsy, whose seizures are controlled, have normal academic abilities and skills for their age., (Copyright © 2013 Sociedad Española de Neurología. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine the profile of children and adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in a comprehensive care centre in Bogota, Colombia., Material and Methods: A descriptive-correlational study with a sample of patients who had attended the institution from 2003 to 2009. Demographic and clinical aspects were evaluated and a correlation between the diagnosis and severity being analysed in search for risk factors., Results: A total of 138 patients were studied. The average age of onset was 21 months, and diagnosis had been made at 45 months. There was a male predominance (6.15:1). The predominant diagnosis was autistic syndrome (83%), followed by pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (17%). There was no pathological background in the family history, during pregnancy or during the neonatal period. Motor development during the first year was normal but acquisition of language skills was compromised. The specific signs of ASD as regards the disorder in itself, communication skills, spontaneous speech, verbal comprehension, attention, imitation, use of objects, self-care and symbolic play were significantly related to the severity of the disease., Conclusions: Diagnosis of ASD is still delayed in our population and usually after referral from someone other than a health professional. The most important problems were found in communication skills and relationships with peers. The study did not show significant associated risk factors., (Copyright © 2010 Sociedad Española de Neurología. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

The aim of this article was to assess the validity of the emotional and developmental components of the Koppitz human figure drawing test. 2420 children's drawings available in a database resulting from a previous cross sectional study designed to determine the prevalence of neurological diseases in children between 0 and 12 years old in Bogota schools were evaluated. They were scored using the criteria proposed by Koppitz, and classified into 16 groups according to age, gender, and presence/absence of learning or attention problems. The overall results were then compared with the normative study to assess whether descriptive parameters of the two populations were significantly different. There were no significant differences associated with presence/absence of learning and attention disorders or school attended within the overall sample. An Interrater reliability test has been made to assure the homogeneity of scoring by the evaluator team. There were significant differences between this population and that of the original study. New scoring tables contextualized for our population based on the frequency of appearance in this sample are presented. We can conclude that various ethnic, social, and cultural factors can influence the way children draw the human figure. It is thus important to establish local reference values to adequately distinguish between normality and abnormality. The new scoring tables proposed here should be followed up with a clinical study to corroborate their validity.

Auditory deficiencies have profound implications for the development of communication abilities, social exchange, and cognitive skills. Although advances in technological instrumentation have decreased the age at which it is possible to detect auditory deficits, an absence of electrophysiological or behavioral reaction to sound does not always reflect hypoacusis. The objective of this study was to evaluate the evolution of audition in a group of children referred for therapy to the CINDA Foundation (Center for Research and Information in Auditory Deficiencies) in Bogota, Colombia, with an initial diagnosis of severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss. We evaluated 25 patients younger than 2.5 years of age with a protocol which included auditory evoked potentials, behavioral responses (tonal audiometry-responses to voice and startle) and language observation. After evaluation, the children began a program of auditory stimulation with audiological follow-up for a period of 6 months to 1 year. The audiological follow-up of the children after auditory stimulation showed significant improvements in both electrophysiological and behavioral indices of their hearing levels (p<.001, one-tailed Wilcoxon exact test). We found a high percentage of children in early stages of auditory maturation with a false diagnosis of hypoacusis (32%). The absence of response may result from compromised auditory reception or processing. Thus, delayed maturation of the auditory pathway should be considered in the differential diagnosis of young children with sensorineural hearing loss.

Introduction: Whenever a new scale is created or translated from another language, it must be validated, establishing its reliability for the new population where it will be used. Sleep quality concept is a construct that can be evaluated using self-report scales. Resulting elements vary depending on the individuals surveyed. This type of evaluation is mainly subjective and includes quantitative aspects such as sleep duration, number of awakenings, latency time, and qualitative aspects such as rest sensation, mood and oneiric content (Valencia, 2000). In the present study we made a critical review of the sleep scales designed for child, adolescent and adult populations that have been validated and the difficulties they might present., Methodology: Between September 2005 and May 2006 a bibliographical search was made within Pubmed, Ovid and the data base of the periodical and book library of the Ramon de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, using and combining the following key words: sleep, sleep questionnaire, sleep scale, sleep inventory, adolescent, adolescent sleep scale. The most relevant papers to our study were selected. The search was limited to Spanish and English articles, although there was no year or geographical origin limit. Articles that did not include clinimetrical data where excluded., Conclusions: Based on our bibliographical search and our discussion, we suggested the design and validation of a Spanish scale to evaluate adolescent population which avoids a time interval between awakening and the answering of the instrument in order to decrease recall bias.

Introduction: Throughout the second half of the 20th century important advances were made in the study of neurobiology related to the processing of music, the differences and similarities between the neural pathways involved in language and in music, the role played by each hemisphere in recognising these stimuli, and the effects that exposure to certain specific pieces of music could have on the cognitive functions., Development: The objective of this study is to review the literature concerning music and the central nervous system, bearing in mind the above-mentioned aspects. Likewise, we also wanted to analyse the reports referring to the Mozart effect and Tomatis, in addition to those dealing with formal musical education and its effects. The increased capacity to respond in visuospatial-type tasks after exposure to music by Mozart has triggered a commercial boom which makes use of isolated data, while the real extent of the effect remains unknown., Conclusions: After reviewing the scientific literature on this subject, it was found that the effects of exposure to music by Mozart (the 'Mozart effect') when they actually occurred, were limited to a specific skill that did not last for more than a few minutes. Formal musical education, on the other hand, shows more permanent positive effects but which can be attributed to the individual attention the pupil receives and to the stimulation in basic skills for general learning.