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Sepiolite is a silicate mineral that improves the fire properties in solid wood when mixed with a water-based coating. The present study was carried out to investigate and evaluate the effects of sepiolite addition to acrylic-latex paint on the pull-off adhesion strength, as an important characteristic of paints and finishes used in the modern furniture industry and historical furniture as well for preservation and restoration of heritage objects. Sepiolite was added at the rate of 10%, and brushed onto plain-sawn beech (Fagus orientalis L.) wood specimens, unimpregnated and impregnated with a 400 ppm silver nano-suspension, which were further thermally modified at 185 °C for 4 h. The results showed that thermal modification had a decreasing effect on the pull-off adhesion strength, primarily as a result of the thermal degradation of cell-wall polymers (mostly hemicelluloses). Still, a decreased wettability as a result of condensation and plasticization of lignin was also partially influential. Based on the obtained results,thermal modification was found to have a significant influence on pull-off adhesion strength. Sepiolite addition had a decreasing effectin all treatments, though the effect was not statistically significant in all treatments. The maximum and minimum decreases due to sepiolite addition were observed in the unimpregnated control (21%) and the thermally-modified NS-impregnated (4%) specimens. Other aspects of the sepiolite addition, and further studies that cover different types of paints and coatings, should be evaluated before coming to a final firm conclusion in this regard., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Pull-off strength is an important property of solid wood, influencing the quality of paints and finishes in the modern furniture industry, as well as in historical furniture and for preservation and restoration of heritage objects. The thermal modification and heat treatment of solid wood have been the most used commercial wood modification techniques over the past decades globally. The effects of heat treatment at two mild temperatures (145 and 185 °C) on the pull-off strength of three common solid wood species, i.e., common beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.), black poplar ( Populus nigra L.), and silver fir ( Abies alba Mill.), were studied in the present research work. The specimens were coated with an unpigmented sealer-clear finish based on an organic solvent. The results demonstrated a positive correlation between the density and pull-off strength in the solid wood species. Heat treatment at 145 °C resulted in an increase in the pull-off strength in all three species, due to the formation of new bonds in the cell-wall polymers. Thermal degradation of the polymers at 185 °C weakened the positive effect of the formation of new bonds, resulting in a largely unchanged pull-off strength in comparison with the control specimens. Impregnation with a silver nano-suspension decreased the pull-off strength in beech specimens. It was concluded that density is the decisive factor in determining the pull-off strength, having a significant positive correlation (R-squared value of 0.89). Heat treatment at lower temperatures is recommended, to increase pull-off strength. Higher temperatures can have a decreasing effect on pull-off strength, due to the thermal degradation of cell-wall polymers.

The old fibers that make up heritage textiles displayed in museums are degraded by the aging process, environmental conditions (microclimates, particulate matter, pollutants, sunlight) and the action of microorganisms. In order to counteract these processes and keep the textile exhibits in good condition for as long as possible, both reactive and preventive interventions on them are necessary. Based on these ideas, the present study aims to test a natural and non-invasive method of cleaning historic textiles, which includes the use of a natural substance with a known antifungal effect (being traditionally used in various rural communities)-lye. The design of the study was aimed at examining a traditional women's shirt that is aged between 80-100 years, using artificial intelligence techniques for Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) imagery analysis and X-ray powder diffraction technique in order to achieve a complex and accurate investigation and monitoring of the object's realities. The determinations were performed both before and after washing the material with lye. SEM microscopy investigations of the ecologically washed textile specimens showed that the number of microorganism colonies, as well as the amount of dust, decreased. It was also observed that the surface cellulose fibers lost their integrity, eventually being loosened on cellulose fibers of cotton threads. This could better visualize the presence of microfibrils that connect the cellulose fibers in cotton textiles. The results obtained could be of real value both for the restorers, the textile collections of the different museums, and for the researchers in the field of cultural heritage. By applying such a methodology, cotton tests can be effectively cleaned without compromising the integrity of the material.

The potential of ammonium lignosulfonate (ALS) as an eco-friendly additive to urea-formaldehyde (UF) resin for manufacturing high-density fiberboard (HDF) panels with acceptable properties and low free formaldehyde emission was investigated in this work. The HDF panels were manufactured in the laboratory with very low UF resin content (4%) and ALS addition levels varying from 4% to 8% based on the mass of the dry wood fibers. The press factor applied was 15 s·mm -1 . The physical properties (water absorption and thickness swelling), mechanical properties (bending strength, modulus of elasticity, and internal bond strength), and free formaldehyde emission were evaluated in accordance with the European standards. In general, the developed HDF panels exhibited acceptable physical and mechanical properties, fulfilling the standard requirements for HDF panels for use in load-bearing applications. Markedly, the laboratory-produced panels had low free formaldehyde emission ranging from 2.0 to 1.4 mg/100 g, thus fulfilling the requirements of the E0 and super E0 emission grades and confirming the positive effect of ALS as a formaldehyde scavenger. The thermal analyses performed, i.e., differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), also confirmed the main findings of the research. It was concluded that ALS as a bio-based, formaldehyde-free adhesive can be efficiently utilized as an eco-friendly additive to UF adhesive formulations for manufacturing wood-based panels under industrial conditions.

Urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins are primary petroleum-based, increasing their potential environmental footprint. Identifying additives to reduce the total amount of resin needed without adversely affecting the panel properties could reduce these impacts. Wollastonite is a mineral containing calcium and silica that has been used as an additive in a variety of materials and may be useful as a resin extender. Nanoscale wollastonite has been shown to enhance the panel properties but is costly. Micron-scale wollastonite may be a less costly alternative. Medium-density fiberboards were produced by blending a hardwood furnish with UF alone, micron-sized wollastonite alone, or a 9:1 ratio of UF to wollastonite. Panels containing of only wollastonite had poor properties, but the properties of panels with 9:1 UF/wollastonite were similar to the UF-alone panels, except for the internal bond strength. The results suggest that small amounts of micron-sized wollastonite could serve as a resin extender. Further studies are suggested to determine if the micron-sized material has similar positive effects on the resin curing rate.

Wood-composite panel factories are in shortage of raw materials; therefore, finding new sources of fibers is vital for sustainable production. The effects of chicken feathers, as a renewable source of natural fibers, on the physicomechanical properties of medium-density fiberboard (MDF) and particleboard panels were investigated here. Wollastonite was added to resin to compensate possible negative effects of chicken feathers. Only feathers of the bodies of chickens were added to composite matrix at 5% and 10% content, based on the dry weight of the raw material, particles or fibers. Results showed significant negative effects of 10%-feather content on physical and mechanical properties. However, feather content of 5% showed some promising results. Addition of wollastonite to resin resulted in the improvement of some physical and mechanical properties. Wollastonite acted as reinforcing filler in resin and improved some of the properties; therefore, future studies should be carried out on the reduction of resin content. Moreover, density functional theory (DFT) demonstrated the formation of new bonds between wollastonite and carbohydrate polymers in the wood cell wall. It was concluded that chicken feathers have potential in wood-composite panel production., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

An issue in engineered wood products, like oriented strand lumber (OSL), is the low thermal conductivity coefficient of raw material, preventing the fast transfer of heat into the core of composite mats. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effect of sepiolite at nanoscale with aspect ratio of 1:15, in mixture with urea-formaldehyde resin (UF), and its effect on thermal conductivity coefficient of the final panel. Sepiolite was mixed with UF resin for 20 min prior to being sprayed onto wood strips in a rotary drum. Ten percent of sepiolite was mixed with the resin, based on the dry weight of UF resin. OSL panels with two resin contents, namely 8% and 10%, were manufactured. Temperature was measured at the core section of the mat at 5-second intervals, using a digital thermometer. The thermal conductivity coefficient of OSL specimens was calculated based on Fourier's Law for heat conduction. With regard to the fact that an improved thermal conductivity would ultimately be translated into a more effective polymerization of the resin, hardness of the panel was measured, at different depths of penetration of the Janka ball, to find out how the improved conductivity affected the hardness of the produced composite panels. The measurement of core temperature in OSL panels revealed that sepiolite-treated panels with 10% resin content had a higher core temperature in comparison to the ones containing 8% resin. Furthermore, it was revealed that the addition of sepiolite increased thermal conductivity in OSL panels made with 8% and 10% resin contents, by 36% and 40%, respectively. The addition of sepiolite significantly increased hardness values in all penetration depths. Hardness increased as sepiolite content increased. Considering the fact that the amount of sepiolite content was very low, and therefore it could not physically impact hardness increase, the significant increase in hardness values was attributed to the improvement in the thermal conductivity of panels and subsequent, more complete, curing of resin., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The aim of this paper was to improve the fire retardancy of beech wood by graphene. Six fire properties, namely time to onset of ignition, time to onset of glowing, back-darkening time, back-holing time, burnt area and weight loss were measured using a newly developed apparatus with piloted ignition. A set of specimens was treated with nano-wollastonite (NW) for comparison with the results of graphene-treated specimens. Graphene and NW were mixed in a water-based paint and brushed on the front and back surface of specimens. Results demonstrated significant improving effects of graphene on times to onset of ignition and glowing. Moreover, graphene drastically decreased the burnt area. Comparison between graphene- and NW-treated specimens demonstrated the superiority of graphene in all six fire properties measured here. Fire retardancy impact of graphene was attributed to its very low reaction ability with oxygen, as well as its high and low thermal conductivity in in-plane and cross-section directions, respectively. The improved fire-retardancy properties by the addition of graphene in paint implied its effectiveness in hindering the spread of fire in buildings and structures, providing a longer timespan to extinguish a fire, and ultimately reducing the loss of life and property. Based on the improvements in fire properties achieved in graphene-treated specimens, it was concluded that graphene has a great potential to be used as a fire retardant in solid wood species.

The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of the fortification level of nanowollastonite on urea-formaldehyde resin (UF) and its effect on mechanical and physical properties of oriented strand lumbers (OSL). Two resin contents are applied, namely, 8% and 10%. Nanowollastonite is mixed with the resin at two levels (10% and 20%). It is found that the fortification of UF resin with 10% nanowollastonite can be considered as an optimum level. When nanowollastonite content is higher (that is, 20%), higher volume of UF resin is left over from the process of sticking the strips together, and therefore is absorbed by wollastonite nanofibers. The mechanism involved in the fortification of UF resin with nanowollastonite, which results in an improvement of thickness swelling values, can be attributed to the following two main factors: (i) nanowollastonite compounds making active bonds with the cellulose hydroxyl groups, putting them out of reach for bonding with the water molecules and (ii) high thermal conductivity coefficient of wollastonite improving the transfer of heat to different layers of the OSL mat, facilitating better and more complete resin curing. Since nanowollastonite contributes to making bonds between the wood strips, which consequently improves physical and mechanical properties, its use can be safely recommended in the OSL production process to improve the physical and mechanical properties of the panel., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The aim of this study was to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of thermally modified beech wood impregnated with silver nano-suspension and to examine their relationship with the crystallinity of cellulose. Specimens were impregnated with a 400 ppm nanosilver suspension (NS); at least, 90% of silver nano-particles ranged between 20 and 100 nano-meters. Heat treatment took place in a laboratory oven at three temperatures, namely 145, 165, and 185 °C. Physical properties and mechanical properties of treated wood demonstrated statistically insignificant fluctuations at low temperatures compared to control specimens. On the other hand, an increase of temperature to 185 °C had a significant effect on all properties. Physical properties (volumetric swelling and water absorption) and mechanical properties (MOR and MOE) of treated wood demonstrated statistically insignificant fluctuations at low temperatures compared to control specimens. This degradation ultimately resulted in significant decrease in MOR, impact strength, and physical properties. However, thermal modification at 185 °C did not seem to cause significant fluctuations in MOE and compression strength parallel to grain. As a consequence of the thermal modification, part of amorphous cellulose was changed to crystalline cellulose. At low temperatures an increased crystallinity caused some of the properties to be improved. Crystallinity also demonstrated a decrease in NS-HT185 in comparison to HT185 treatment. TCr indices in specimens thermally treated at 145 °C revealed a significant increase as a result of impregnation with nanosilver suspension. This improvement in TCr index resulted in a noticeable increase in MOR and MOE values. Other properties did not show significant fluctuations, suggesting that the effect of the increased crystallinity and cross-linking in lignin was more than the negative effect of the low cell-wall polymer degradation caused by thermal modification. Change of amorphous cellulose to crystalline cellulose, as well as cross-linking in lignin, partially ameliorated the negative effects of thermal degradation at higher temperatures and therefore, compression parallel to grain and modulus of elasticity did not decrease significantly. Overall, it can be concluded that increased crystallinity and cross-linking in lignin can compensate for some decreased properties caused by thermal modification, but it would be significantly dependent on the temperature under which modification is carried out. Impregnating specimens with silver nano-suspension prior to thermal modification enhanced the effects of thermal modification as a result of improved thermal conductivity.

Effects of Aspergillus niger was investigated on the strength of cotton textile specimens impregnated with nano-wollastonite, and then compared with normal specimens. Cotton strips were cut and prepared in warp and wept directions according to the standard specifications ASTM D-5035. Results showed that incubation of A. niger on specimens for three months resulted in a significant decrease in tensile stress as well as weight mass change in both directions. Impregnating specimens with NW ameliorated the negative effects of fungal attack on tensile stress to a considerable extent. Moreover, weight change was significantly decreased. It is concluded that NW positively protect cotton textile against A. nigra; the ultimate NW-content should be studied in complimentary studies.

Effects of impregnation with silver nano-suspension as well as heat-treatment on sound absorption coefficients (AC) were studied in tangential direction of five different solid woods based on their importance. AC was measured at two frequencies of 250 and 500 Hz. A 400 ppm nanosuspension was used for the impregnation; silver nanoparticles had a size range of 30-80 nm. Based on the obtained results, the species reacted significantly different in absorbing sound at the two frequencies. Impregnation with nano-suspension substantially decreased AC at the lower frequency of 250 Hz; it did not show any particular trend when AC was measured at the frequency of 500 Hz. Heat treatment significantly increased AC at the frequency of 250 Hz. ACs of mulberry tended to be similar at the two frequencies; in the other four species though, ACs were significantly different. High significant correlations were found in the hardwoods between the ACs measured at the two frequencies.

Sound absorption coefficients (ACs) were determined in five solid woods (poplar, beech, walnut, mulberry, and fir) in the longitudinal and tangential directions at four different frequencies of 800, 1000, 2000, and 4000 Hz. The length of the longitudinal and tangential specimens was 50-mm and 10-mm, respectively. Separate sets of specimens were impregnated with either nanosilver suspension or water. The size range of nanoparticles was 30-80 nm. Results showed that sound ACs were lower in longitudinal specimens because sound waves could penetrate the open ends of vessels more easily, being trapped and damped there. Impregnation with both nanosilver suspension and water resulted in a significant decrease in the sound ACs. The decrease in the ACs was due to the collapsing and accumulation of perforation plates and cell parts, blocking the way through which waves could pass through the vessels. This caused higher damping due to a phenomenon called vibration decay. Correlation between gas permeability versus sound AC is significantly dependant on the porous structure of individual specimens.

Effects were studied of vapour chamber on specific gas permeability of nanosilane (NS)-treated medium-density fibreboards (MDFs). Size range of nanoparticles was 20-80 nm. NS was used at four consumption levels of 0, 50, 100 and 150 g/kg dry wood fibres. Density of all treatments was kept constant at 0.67 g/cm(3). Specimens were kept for 18 weeks in vapourised chamber; their specific gas permeability was measured every two weeks. Results showed that extreme moisture uptake because of the biological structure of wood fibres, as well as mold and fungi growth on the specimens from the tenth week, resulted in the breaking down of the urea-formaldehyde resin; they also weakened the water-repellant effect of NS; consequently, the permeability increased significantly. It can be concluded that NS makes MDF susceptible to molds and therefore NS-treated MDF panels are not recommended for moist climates in which boards are exposed to water vapours in the air for a long time, although NS-panels primarily showed higher impermeability to water.

Effects of dry-ice treatment (frozen CO(2) at -78.5°C) on gas permeability of untreated and nano-silver-impregnated poplar and beech specimens were studied here on the basis of their biological structure and woody mass as well as their vessel element types. A 200 ppm aqueous dispersion of silver nano-particles was used for impregnation; the size range of silver nano-particles was 20-80 nm. Dry-ice treatment increased gas permeability by 87 and 45% in poplar and beech, respectively. Nano-silver impregnation also increased gas permeability by 190 and 89% in poplar and beech, respectively. Dry-ice treatment on nano-silver-impregnated specimens increased gas permeability even more (31% increase in poplar but only 0.96% in beech). It may be concluded that dry-ice treatment on solid woods may be used as a practical method to increase permeability in species that because of their biological structures are impermeable; since this method alters the biological structure slightly and consequently decreases mechanical strength of solid woods insignificantly, it may substitute methods such as incising to increase permeability.