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This study aims to explore the current practices that are encountered during the process of training in ethio telecom. It is a description of all the issues concerning Training practices in terms of how the training process is conducted (how training needs are assessed, how Training is designed and set objectives, how training is delivered and how training programs are evaluated); This study aims to investigate problems and challenges that face training activities and searches for practical suggestions to improve the effectiveness of these activities. The research has adopted a multi-methods approach. The data were gathered through a combination of both semi-structured interviews with 12 top and middle level managers and a questionnaire addressed to the randomly selected employees of the organization who have better knowledge and are more experienced about the organization. A purposive sampling method was used in choosing the participants of this study. In total, 12 top and middle managers and 355 employees took part in the study. The study reveals that, mainly in the organization, there is an absence of systematic employee training needs assessment and because of the low commitment of top managers; there is ineffective procedures for evaluation. The company highly depend only on off-the-job training delivery methods, namely lectures methods. To improve training effectiveness the researcher recommends many actions and decisions which need to be undertaken. Finally; ethio telecom should have to conduct each and every process properly. The existence of training programs in place by itself doesn't assure the effectiveness of the training program unless it is supported by systematic training process. Therefore, since each processes are interrelated they need to be conducted with due care. On time delivery of the training should also be given the necessary attention in order to make the training practice effective and productive.

Selection upon intrinsic fitness differences is one of the most basic mechanisms of evolution, fundamental to all biology. Equally, within macroscopic populations and microscopic environments, ecological interactions influence evolution. Direct experimental evidence of ecological selection between microscopic agents continues to grow. Whilst eco-evolutionary dynamics describes how interactions influence population fitness and composition, we build a model that allows ecological aspects of these interactions to fall on a spectrum independent of the intrinsic fitness of the population. With our mathematical framework, we show how ecological interactions between mutating populations modify the estimated evolutionary trajectories expected from monoculture fitnesses alone. We derive and validate analytical stationary solutions to our partial differential equations that depend on intrinsic and ecological terms, and mutation rates. We determine cases in which these interactions modify evolution in such ways as to, for example, maintain or invert existing monoculture fitness differences. This work discusses the importance of understanding ecological and intrinsic selection effects to avoid misleading conclusions from experiments and defines new ways to assess this balance from experimental results. Using published experimental data, we also show evidence that real microbiological systems can span intrinsic fitness dominant and ecological-effect dominant regimes and that ecological contributions can change with an environment to exaggerate or counteract the composite populations' intrinsic fitness differences.

The evolution of resistance remains one of the primary challenges for modern medicine from infectious diseases to cancers. Many of these resistance-conferring mutations often carry a substantial fitness cost in the absence of treatment. As a result, we would expect these mutants to undergo purifying selection and be rapidly driven to extinction. Nevertheless, pre-existing resistance is frequently observed from drug-resistant malaria to targeted cancer therapies in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and melanoma. Solutions to this apparent paradox have taken several forms from spatial rescue to simple mutation supply arguments. Recently, in an evolved resistant NSCLC cell line, we found that frequency-dependent ecological interactions between ancestor and resistant mutant ameliorate the cost of resistance in the absence of treatment. Here, we hypothesize that frequency-dependent ecological interactions in general play a major role in the prevalence of pre-existing resistance. We combine numerical simulations with robust analytical approximations to provide a rigorous mathematical framework for studying the effects of frequency-dependent ecological interactions on the evolutionary dynamics of pre-existing resistance. First, we find that ecological interactions significantly expand the parameter regime under which we expect to observe pre-existing resistance. Next, even when positive ecological interactions between mutants and ancestors are rare, these resistant clones provide the primary mode of evolved resistance because even weak positive interaction leads to significantly longer extinction times. We then find that even in the case where mutation supply alone is sufficient to predict pre-existing resistance, frequency-dependent ecological forces still contribute a strong evolutionary pressure that selects for increasingly positive ecological effects (negative frequency-dependent selection). Finally, we genetically engineer several of the most common clinically observed resistance mechanisms to targeted therapies in NSCLC, a treatment notorious for pre-existing resistance. We find that each engineered mutant displays a positive ecological interaction with their ancestor. As a whole, these results suggest that frequency-dependent ecological effects can play a crucial role in shaping the evolutionary dynamics of pre-existing resistance.