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Abstract Lack of infrastructures, rapid growth in population, high urbanization and unsegregation makes the management of municipal solid waste a difficult task for local authorities. The paper proposes an approach for selecting the waste transfer station locations under unsegregated and segregated waste scenarios in an economical manner. The analytical approach is a combination of two basic components, (i) a mathematical optimization model for the overall cost of municipal solid waste management; and (ii) tools of a geographic information system for creating the dataset of the mathematical model. The novelty in the developed model includes strategic allocation of transfer stations for three scenarios: (i) solid waste collected from sources without segregation (Scenario (I)); (ii) waste collected considering source separation and transfer stations taking only one type of wastes (Scenario (II)); (iii) waste collected under source separation and transfer stations having multiple halls for multiple types of waste (Scenario (III)). The proposed approach has been verified by applying on city of Bilaspur, India. Optimization model selects six best locations for Scenario (I), (II) and five for Scenario (III). Results also show that among the three scenarios studied, scenario (III) is the best as it is providing more profit than scenario (II) and (I). Validity of the model is tested by ANOVA analysis and it suggested key parameters (frequency, operating cost and land value) as significant. This finding suggests that transfer stations with or without multiple halls under source separation environment can earn the profit from solid waste while solving the problem of high collection cost and landfills. Highlights • Mathematical model to find best locations for transfer stations. • Source separation of municipal solid waste along with variation in land cost. • Model validated by applying on a case study. • Significance of key parameters has been tested by ANOVA analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The capacity design of passengers’ circulation areas at the transfer stations is a crucial issue from the designers’ point of view. An adequate design reflects the better performance while inadequacy leads to the congestion issues at the transfer stations. To overcome the shortcomings in the design guide (TCRP-165 Report) and existing exponential-based (M/G( n )/N/N) design model, this paper reports a novel Discrete-Event Simulation (DES) model based on the Phase-Type (PH)-distributed random variates for the circulation areas (passageways and stairways), integrated with the Differential Evolution (DE) optimization approach. This hybrid simulation-optimization model is an automated framework that simultaneously works to provide optimal widths of the passengers’ circulation areas, under a desirable Level-of-Service (LOS) and blocking probability criteria. The passengers’ arrival and service time pattern of the circulation areas in the DES model is described by the PH distribution, which accurately takes into account the variation of passengers’ arrival at different instants as well as randomness and state-dependent service time of the circulation areas. The comparison of proposed model with exponential-based (M/G( n )/N/N) model and TCRP-165 Report reveals that: (1) the optimal widths of circulation areas obtained by proposed model are greater than both M/G( n )/N/N and TCRP-100 Report; (2) the optimal width increases with the increase in squared coefficient of variation for all the passengers’ arrival rates, LOS and lengths of the circulation areas; (3) the optimal width values drop from LOS B towards D; (4) our proposed simulation-DE optimization outperforms the simulation-GA optimization approach in term of the speed of convergence. This novel hybrid simulation-DE optimization framework is an effective tool for the designers of transfer stations in decision making process and analyzing the complex facilities with ease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to explore the possibility to develop an automatically adjustable, reliable, and safe capsule filling operation. Process parameters that are critical for the tamping pin process were reviewed based on the literature and via experiment. Dosing disc height, powder bed height, machine speed, pressure on the tamping pin, and immersion depth were reviewed. Two investigations were performed on a GKF 702. In the first one, the powder feed rate onto the dosing disc was examined and modified. A distance sensor with a PID controller enabled a constant powder bed level with an online changeable set point. For a bad flowing product an improvement of the fill weight variation could be achieved by automatically adjusting the feed rate to the correct speed and matching the actual process conditions of the capsule filler. The second part of the study concerned the safety of the filler operation. Introducing a force transducer on the transfer station is a promising option for running the capsule filler safely within its process specifications. The tamping pin pressure was used to provoke different transfer forces. A deviation from a defined process specification led to a safe stop of the machine. In summary, the automated adjustment of several critical process parameters appears to be feasible and supports the rational development of efficient production processes using a dosing disc capsule filler. This is especially relevant for continuous production of pharmaceuticals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents an interval-valued facility location model to find economically best locations for transfer stations under uncertainty. Transfer stations are the vital part of contemporary municipal solid waste management systems and economical siting of transfer stations using developed model lead to a financially sustainable system. Often, the associated uncertainty of these systems cannot be modeled by conventional probabilistic or fuzzy approaches under a data scarce scenario; however, models based on interval analysis are found to be very effective in such cases. A set of univariate and multivariate sensitivity analyses adduces the need of uncertainty analysis for quantification and propagation of uncertainty. The demonstration of model on city of Nashik (India) provides (i) economical feasibility, optimum capacity and economically best locations of transfer stations; and (ii) impact of uncertain parameters on the best locations. The developed model felicitates a convenient decision-making to identify economically best locations of transfer stations under uncertain environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ampang Jajar Transfer Station (AJTS) in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia receives wastes from North and Central Seberang Perai, which are consolidated at AJTS before final disposal at Pulau Burung Sanitary Landfill located 40 km south. AJTS is located in an industrial area with the closest residences, Flat Ampang Jajar, about 300 m away. Efforts have been in place to manage odour nuisance by spraying solutions of Effective Microorganism (EM) and Lysol at the operation area of the AJTS. This study was conducted with the objective of verifying the effectiveness of EM and Lysol in odour control and their suitable spraying frequency. Solid wastes taken from AJTS were characterised in the laboratory for solids and moisture content, while its leachate was analysed for chemical oxygen demand (COD) and volatile fatty acids. A portion of the collected sample was also tested for odour concentration with and without EM and Lysol application. Laboratory analysis indicated that AJTS waste is highly degradable with 72% moisture content and 76% volatile solids, thus susceptible to odour production during decomposition. Acetic, butyric and propionic acid were present at concentrations of 3618 ppm, 581 ppm and 549 ppm respectively, higher than their respective odour threshold detection value of 0.21 ppm, 0.001 ppm and 0.16 ppm. The sour and rancid smell attributed with the waste sample is contributed partly by the VFA content. AJTS sample in laboratory conditions was treated more effectively by Lysol (57% odour reduction) compared to EM (24% odour reduction). Lysol reduces malodour by masking the unpleasant "sour garbage" odour with a "soapy" scent instead, leading to a perceived "mildly unpleasant" (-1) hedonic tone. The current spraying of Lysol twice every 6 h at the AJTS is sufficient to manage odour to acceptable levels for 7 h after spray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Odorants from municipal solid waste (MSW) were complex variable, and the screening of key offensive odorants was the prerequisite for odor control process. In this study, spatial odor emissions and environmental impacts were investigated based on a large-scale working waste transfer station (LSWTS) using waste container system, and a comprehensive odor characterization method was developed and applied in terms of the odor concentration (OC), theory odor concentration (TOC), total chemical concentration (TCC), and electric nose (EN). The detected odor concentration ranged from 14 to 28 (dimensionless), and MSW container showed the highest OC value of 28, EN of 78, and TCC of 35 (ppm) due to the accumulation of leachate and residual MSW. Ninety-two species odorants were identified, and HS, NH, benzene, styrene, ethyl acetate, and dichloromethane were the main contributors in the container, while benzene, m,p,x-xylene, butanone, acetone, isopropanol, and ethyl acetate were predominant in the compression surface (CS) and compression plant (CP). Side of roads (SR) and unload hall (UH) showed low odorous impact. Based on this odor list, 20 species of odor substances were screened for the priority control through the synthetic evaluation method, considering the odorants concentrations, toxicity, threshold values, detection frequency, saturated vapor pressure, and appeared frequency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of waste management systems rarely accounts for the spatio-temporal evolution of the demand. However, recent studies suggest that this evolution affects the planning of waste management activities like the choice and location of treatment facilities. As a result, the transport structure could also be affected by these changes. The objective of this paper is to study the influence of the spatio-temporal evolution of the demand on the strategic planning of a waste transport structure. More particularly this study aims at evaluating the effect of varying spatial parameters on the economic performance of hierarchical structures (with one transfer station). To this end, three consecutive generations of three different spatial distributions were tested for hierarchical and non-hierarchical transport structures based on costs minimization. Results showed that a hierarchical structure is economically viable for large and clustered spatial distributions. The distance parameter was decisive but the loading ratio of trucks and the formation of clusters of sources also impacted the attractiveness of the transfer station. Thus the territories’ morphology should influence strategies as regards to the installation of transfer stations. The use of spatial-explicit tools such as the transport model presented in this work that take into account the territory’s evolution are needed to help waste managers in the strategic planning of waste transport structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in the quantity of municipal solid waste generated as a result of population growth in most urban areas has resulted in the difficulty of locating suitable land areas to be used as landfills. To curb this, waste transfer stations are used. The Kumasi Metropolitan Area, even though it has an engineered landfill, is faced with the problem of waste collection from the generation centres to the final disposal site. Thus in this study, multi-criteria decision analysis incorporated into a geographic information system was used to determine potential waste transfer station sites. The key result established 11 sites located within six different sub-metros. This result can be used by decision makers for site selection of the waste transfer stations after taking into account other relevant ecological and economic factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid population growth and high rate of urbanization make municipal solid waste management a challenging task for municipalities due to the inadequacy of infrastructural services. Taking this into consideration, this paper proposes an approach for finding economically optimal locations and feasibility demonstration of a municipal solid waste management infrastructure unit, i.e. waste transfer stations. This analytical approach consists of two basic elements: ( i ) a mathematical model to optimize overall cost for municipal solid waste management; and ( ii ) geographical information system tools to create a data inventory for the mathematical model. The novelty of the proposed model includes heterogeneity in data compilation, on-road measurements of distances and strategic allocation of transfer stations. Also, to assess waste load estimation more precisely, analyzing the impacts of heterogeneity in data and on-road distances on model, three distinct cases have been considered. Further, the developed approach has been demonstrated on the city of Nashik, India. The mathematical model for Nashik city is written in a mathematical programming language AMPL and the solutions have been obtained using KNITRO solver. Optimization model selects three best locations out of eight potential locations with the optimum capacity of 200 TPD. Furthermore, the assessment of model's behavior under uncertainty has been performed with a comprehensive sensitivity analysis for further improvements. The integrity of all components in this study produces a generic framework for helping municipal officials and researchers for development of a municipal solid waste management system with transfer stations in an economically optimal manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) collection is a necessary process in any municipality resulting in the quality-of-life, economic aspects and urban structuralization. The intrinsic nature of MSW collection relates to the development of effective vehicle routing models that optimize the total traveling distances of vehicles, the environmental emission and the investment costs. In this article, we propose a generalized vehicle routing model including multiple transfer stations, gather sites and inhomogeneous vehicles in time windows for MSW collection. It takes into account traveling in one-way routes, the number of vehicles per m 2 and waiting time at traffic stops for reduction of operational time. The proposed model could be used for scenarios having similar node structures and vehicles’ characteristics. A case study at Danang city, Vietnam is given to illustrate the applicability of this model. The experimental results have clearly shown that the new model reduces both total traveling distances and operational hours of vehicles in comparison with those of practical scenarios. Optimal routes of vehicles on streets and markets at Danang are given. Those results are significant to practitioners and local policy makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In India, a substantial fraction (∼0.85) of total expenditure on MSW management is spent on collection of waste. Nevertheless, the average waste collection efficiency is about 70% in Indian urban areas. Waste collection efficiency can be increased by utilising staff and collection vehicles effectively with transfer stations (TSs), though choosing best sites (in an economically optimal manner) for TSs siting is a major task. Also, many parameters (e.g., waste-generation rate, running cost of facilities, transportation cost, revenues etc.) in MSW management system are associated with uncertainties. To study the apportionment of these uncertain input parameters into the results, a comprehensive sensitivity analysis has been performed. Furthermore, the effect of interaction among most sensitive parameters is examined through design of experiment. Also, a facility location two stage stochastic model has been proposed to select the best sites for TSs siting, which is basically a framework of facility location problems involving uncertainty. The developed model is applied on the city of Nashik, Maharashtra, India. The model has 9186 constraints and 8152 variables, which has been written in AMPL (a mathematical programming language). KNITRO 5.2 (nonlinearinterior-point trust region optimizer) have been used to solve the developed model. Sensitivity analysis abduces waste generation as the most sensitive kind of parameter followed by the unit transportation cost of waste from source to TSs. Furthermore, multivariate SA identifies the importance of a facility location framework involving uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dependence of the technical and economic performance of truck haulage on the number and location of transfer stations in the working area of the pit was investigated. Analytical dependence to determine the optimum number of transfer stations when they are uniformly distributed along the length and depth of the working area was specified. The special features of change in key performance of mining motor transport depending on the number of crushing and transfer stations in the CCPF technology, pit capacity and size of the working area were detected. The conditions for simultaneous use of multiple crushing and transfer stations, their major process parameters and the optimum number of stations located horizontally and vertically were determined, the economic efficiency of process flowcharts with multiple transfer stations was estimated. The investigations made have shown that in all cases, optimization and increase in the number of transfer stations leads to a decrease in the number of dump trucks by 50-60% compared to the option of using one transfer station. Increasing the number of transfer stations, while reducing the number of dump trucks, improves reliability of truck haulage. Optimizing the number of transfer stations reduces the required capacity of each crushing and transfer equipment to 10-20 million tons/year. The use of mobile crushing and transfer stations neither freezes ore reserves, nor impedes the development of the working area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transfer Stations are facilities dedicated to management, and solid waste transfer of a vehicle to another with greater capacity, which transports them to their place of use or disposal. The main purpose of the research is to represent the location of these kind facilities through a model of mixed integer linear programming, which consider different characteristics of stations such as total capacity and materials recovery. Total costs minimization is the main objective. To do this, we minimize opening fixed costs, transportation costs and operating costs evaluated at the current time through a function of present cost equivalent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dimensionless parameters of a pipe flow’s Reynolds number ( Re ), mass flow-rate number ( m p /( μD )), specific induced airflow number ( ρ p ·( u g D 2 / m p )), height number ( h / D ), and granular-flow number ( Gr ) were obtained by using the Pi theorem. The influences of m p /( μD ), ρ p ·( u g D 2 / m p ), and h / D to the Re were explored by similitude experiments. Finally, the semi-empirical model of induced airflow velocity was established through the Gr and Re . The conclusions are as follows: in the semi-closed transfer station, the Re value increased with the increase of the m p /( μD ) value. Due to the interaction among the particles and change of the specific flow space of the blanking tube on the specific induced air flow, the ρ p ·( u g D 2 / m p ) value was found to be proportional to the m p /( μD ) value raised to the power of approximately −0.73. Due to limitations of drop heights, particles should be in the acceleration phase from beginning to end, when the resistance drag of the particles is less than the gravity of itself. It was also discovered that the Re value is proportional to the h / D value raised to the power of approximately 0.88. Additionally, similitude experiment results revealed that the Re value is proportional to the Gr value raised to the power of approximately 0.27. On this basis, the semi-empirical model for induced airflow velocity was established. The model can forecast actual values accurately with a deviation of the calculated values limited to plus or minus 10%. These research results can benefit industries in their transfer station dust control systems and in the design of ventilation systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a logistics network is investigated which includes multi-suppliers, collection centers, transfer stations, treatment stations, and products. For this purpose, a multi-objective mathematical programming model is proposed that minimizes the total costs including the fixed costs for opening facilities and transportation costs between facilities, minimizes the distance between each waste-generating facilities and transfer stations, maximizing the distance between treatment and disposal stations and customer zones, and maximizes the sum of the reliability of coverage for the potential facilities which will be open. In order to make the results of this paper more realistic, a case study in the iron and steel industry has been investigated. Besides, a new solution approach is proposed by combining fuzzy possibilistic programming, stochastic programming, and fuzzy multi-objective programming. Moreover, an imperialist competitive algorithm is proposed to obtain near optimal solution in comparison with other evolutionary algorithms. Finally, computational experiments are provided to demonstrate the applicability and suitability of the proposed model and solution approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Informal settlements in the global South cities are often neglected by formal solid waste collection services. In the city of Managua, the municipality and international and local NGOs recently implemented several waste management projects to provide waste collection in informal settlements. These projects supported or created cooperatives or microenterprises of waste pickers collecting household solid waste in barrios inaccessible to modern waste trucks. The projects also created three waste transfer stations, on barrio fringes, where the collected waste could be disposed and transported by municipal truck to the municipal landfill. New institutionalism theory and the “travel metaphor” illuminate how the “waste transfer station” idea travelled to Managua from various international organizations. New urban infrastructure and waste management models introduced by donors were decoupled from existing waste management models and practices. Despite the organizational hypocrisy of the city administration, introducing this new model via pilot projects in three city districts challenges the logic of the existing centralized waste management system, which ignores the city's informal settlements. The introduced waste transfer stations and associated waste collection practices were translated, and sometimes contested, in some informal settlements through protests, occupations, and other defiance strategies enacted by municipal waste collectors, squatters, and residents. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Fresh leachates in different seasons from a refuse transfer station in Shanghai were characterized and seasonal impact on physicochemical characteristics of the leachates was investigated. The leachate properties, including concentration of organic substances, nitrogen distribution, electric conductivity (EC), oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), etc. had been monitored in summer and winter. The results showed that pH, COD, TOC, TN and EC of the leachate in winter were much higher than those in summer. While other parameters, such as inorganic nitrogen, ORP, metals, TSS and VSS, showed no considerable distinction between the two seasons. Three-dimensional excitation–emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy was also conducted to characterize dissolved organic materials (DOM) of the leachate. The observation revealed that seasonal variations had direct effects on the fundamental characteristics of raw leachate, which provided useful potential reference for fresh leachate bio-treatment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Stairway and escalator are the main transfer facilities in the station where pedestrians make choices between them. A good understanding of pedestrian choices is helpful to raise the efficiency of transfer stations and lower the probability of disasters, such as stamps caused by congestion. This paper studies the choice behavior of pedestrians using random utility theory and floor field cellular automata. Among the factors influencing pedestrian choices, there are non-quantitative ones and quantitative ones. Thus, a method combining qualitative description and quantitative description is adopted. Subsequently, a logit model is presented to mimic the choice behaviors of pedestrians. In this model, there are three new important parameters, including familiarity, walking disutility, and time pressure. By using micro-simulation, a sensitivity analysis for these parameters is conducted. Besides, a counting rule based on the Large Number Law is presented to count the real data in transfer stations in Shanghai. After comparing the sensitivity analysis results and measurement data, several reference values of the three important parameters are obtained in un-congested and congested situations respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Previous research on brominated flame retardants (BFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) has largely focussed on their concentrations in the environment and their adverse effects on human health. This paper explores their transfer from waste streams to water and soil. A comprehensive mass balance model is developed to track polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), originating from e-waste and non-e-waste solids leaching from a landfill. Stepwise debromination is assumed to occur in three sub-systems (e-waste, aqueous leachate phase, and non-e-waste solids). Analysis of landfill samples and laboratory results from a solid-liquid contacting chamber are used to estimate model parameters to simulate an urban landfill system, for past and future scenarios. Sensitivity tests to key model parameters were conducted. Lower BDEs require more time to disappear than high-molecular weight PBDEs, since debromination takes place in a stepwise manner, according to the simplified reaction scheme. Interphase mass transfer causes the decay pattern to be similar in all three sub-systems. The aqueous phase is predicted to be the first sub-system to eliminate PBDEs if their input to the landfill were to be stopped. The non-e-waste solids would be next, followed by the e-waste sub-system. The model shows that mass transfer is not rate-limiting, but the evolution over time depends on the kinetic degradation parameters. Experimental scatter makes model testing difficult. Nevertheless, the model provides qualitative understanding of the influence of key variables. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this study a GIS model was developed and spatial analytical techniques performed to identify and select a suitable location for a waste transfer station in the sprawling suburban town of Petaling Jaya. The lack of a transfer station in urban centres of Malaysia has caused many problems and affects the efficiency of waste collection and disposal. With diminishing space for landfills and the increasing cost of solid waste management, the need for urban solid-waste recycling has become very important. However, finding a place for waste to be efficiently sorted before unwanted waste can be carried to disposal landfills has social and physical constraints. This study applies GIS techniques and analysis for site selection and identifies an acceptable area. In the model, environmental, physical and social constraints were taken into account, resulting in the selection of a potential area that is acceptable to the residents of the area because it is out of range of causing public nuisance and within minimum travelling distance for collection vehicles. The results show that the potential location for the transfer station should be in proximity of the industrial area of Petaling Jaya, allowing for the possible sale of recyclable materials to local industries. The location is also sited near a major highway to allow quick transportation of the rest of the unwanted waste to the landfill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: Transfer stations are an important component of modern solid waste management systems. Solid waste management facilities (e.g., landfills) are very attractive to and used by many birds, resulting in a variety of health and safety problems, including disease transmission to humans and increased risk of wildlife–aircraft collisions. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration recommends municipal solid waste management facilities (e.g., landfills, transfer stations) not be sited within 8km of an airport. Little information is available regarding the attractiveness of transfer stations to birds or the factors that might influence avian use, particularly on a national scale. The objectives of my study were to: (1) quantify avian use of transfer stations, (2) determine if building design features influence their attractiveness to birds, and (3) determine if other factors (e.g., season, geographic location, operational procedures) influence bird use. Twenty-nine waste transfer facilities and 4 control sites, located in 7 states (representative of various U.S. geographical regions) were studied. Avian abundance and activity was quantified at each facility and control site twice per week for one year. Nuisance bird species commonly observed using transfer stations (e.g., feeding on refuse) included gulls, European starlings, and crows. Patterns of wildlife use at transfer stations varied by season, geographic location, transfer station building design, and on-site management characteristics. Overall, this study demonstrates that wildlife use of transfer stations, particularly by nuisance birds, can be substantial. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mathematical programming has been often used to optimize municipal solid waste management and transfer systems. The objective of this work was to develop a practical methodology to aid in the optimal design of a solid waste collection network in regions with well-specified boundaries. The objective function was a non-linear equation that minimized total collection cost. The cost comprised the capital and operating costs of: (i) the waste transfer stations, (ii) the waste collection vehicles, (iii) the semitrailers and tractors as well as the waste collection within a community, and the cost to haul the wastes to the transfer stations or to the landfills. The adjustable (decision) variables were binary variables that designated whether a path between two nodes is valid or not. Binary variables were also used to designate whether a transfer station should be constructed or not. In this methodology, the waste production nodes and their waste production rates were specified. The locations of all candidate waste transfer stations were designated using two alternative GIS-based siting methodologies; the locations of the final nodes (landfills) were precisely specified too. The actual travel distances and times among all nodes were the main input variables. The model was developed in an Excel® spreadsheet and was applied to a Hellenic region that has 53 municipalities. The candidate transfer stations sited in the region were 47 and one or two landfills were present in the system. The optimal solution suggested that 47 and 6 municipalities should direct their wastes to 12 transfer stations and to 2 landfills, respectively. The 12 transfer stations should then transfer their wastes to their adjacent landfills. The optimal collection cost was €42.4t−1. A sensitivity analysis concluded that fuel cost was the most sensitive parameter in the model. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Considering the interlayer height, luggage, the difference between queuing pedestrians, and walking speed, the pedestrian choice model of vertical walking facilities is established based on a support vector machine. This model is verified with the pedestrian flow data of Changchun light-rail transfer station and Beijing Xizhimen transfer station. Adding the pedestrian choice model of vertical walking facilities into the pedestrian simulation model which is based on cellular automata, the pedestrian choice behavior is simulated. In the simulation, the effects of the dynamic influence factors are analyzed. To reduce the conflicts between pedestrians in opposite directions, the layout of vertical walking facilities is improved. The simulations indicate that the improved layout of vertical walking facilities can improve the efficiency of pedestrians passing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]