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Ce numéro d'Innovations Agronomiques rassemble des articles issus de communications présentées au colloque national «Les polycultures-élevages: valoriser leurs atouts pour la transition agro-écologique » organisé par le RMT SPyCE et AgroSup Dijon, à Dijon les 10 et 11 octobre 2017.; International audience; Les interactions entre atelier de culture et atelier d’élevage sont perçues dans la littérature scientifiquecomme un concept vertueux. Elles intègrent notamment le bouclage des cycles des nutriments voireune meilleure résilience économique des exploitations. Pourtant, la tendance à la spécialisation desexploitations reste forte. Une solution pourrait être d’envisager un changement d’échelle, et d’imaginerces interactions par le biais de transactions entre exploitations spécialisées à l’échelle du territoire. Pouraccompagner les agriculteurs dans ces démarches, l’enjeu est alors de comprendre le fonctionnementde ces transactions et de déterminer les freins et les leviers pour accompagner les agriculteurs dansces démarches. La théorie des coûts de transactions adaptée aux coopérations agricoles a permisd’identifier les facteurs déterminants à la bonne marche, à la pérennité de projets de coopération et biensûr, les facteurs utiles à l’accompagnement de ces démarches

Les interactions entre atelier de culture et atelier d’élevage sont perçues dans la littérature scientifique comme un concept vertueux. Elles intègrent notamment le bouclage des cycles des nutriments voire une meilleure résilience économique des exploitations. Pourtant, la tendance à la spécialisation des exploitations reste forte. Une solution pourrait être d’envisager un changement d’échelle, et d’imaginer ces interactions par le biais de transactions entre exploitations spécialisées à l’échelle du territoire. Pour accompagner les agriculteurs dans ces démarches, l’enjeu est alors de comprendre le fonctionnement de ces transactions et de déterminer les freins et les leviers pour accompagner les agriculteurs dans ces démarches. La théorie des coûts de transactions adaptée aux coopérations agricoles a permis d’identifier les facteurs déterminants à la bonne marche, à la pérennité de projets de coopération et bien sûr, les facteurs utiles à l’accompagnement de ces démarches., The interactions between crop and livestock are perceived as a virtuous concept. In particular, they include the closure of nutrient cycles and even better economic resilience of farms. However, the trend towards the specialization of farms remains strong. One solution could be to consider a change of scale, and to imagine these interactions through transactions between specialized farms across the territory. To support farmers in these approaches, the challenge is to understand the operation of these transactions and determine the brakes and levers to support farmers in these approaches. The theory of transaction costs adapted to agricultural cooperation has made possible to identify the factors determining the proper functioning, the sustainability of cooperation projects and, of course, the factors that are useful in supporting these approaches

The Government of Jordan, the World Bank Group (WBG), and the international community are working towards a paradigm shift in their collective response to the refugee crisis - a holistic approach which stresses the continuum between the humanitarian response and the country’s development agenda. In parallel, Jordan’s implicit social contract by which the state provided citizens with jobs and heavily subsidized public services is evolving. strategic engagement, the WBG will adopt a two-pronged approach aimed at simultaneously addressing Jordan’s immediate needs in view of the fluid and worsening regional situation while keeping a medium and long-term development commitment built on reforming the economy to create the right environment for inclusive, job-creating growth. The first pillar of the Country Partnership Framework (CPF) aims to foster the conditions for stronger private-sector-led growth and better employment opportunities for all.The second pillar of the CPF aims to improve the quality and equity of service delivery, including through private sector solutions.The CPF will implement the new Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Strategy at the country level.The CPF aligns with the Government’s vision Jordan 2025, the Executive Development Plan 2016-2018 (EDP), and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).The CPF’s principles of engagement will be selectivity, flexibility, adaptability and partnership. The outlook for 2016 forecasts growth at three percent on account of a growing mining and quarrying sector, some energy investments, and base effect of the tourism and construction sectors, although some downside risks have begun to materialize in early 2016.

Access to adequate housing is critically important to the health and wellbeing of the world’s population. Yet, despite the fact that this statement is part of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and has been on the global policy agenda for many years, hundreds of millions of people continue to live in inadequate conditions with little or no access to decent housing. The demand for housing solutions will increase as urbanization and population growth persists. The United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-Habitat) has estimated that the number of people living in slums around the world will rise to 900 million by 2020 if nothing is done. Asia and Africa will face special challenges, because urbanization in those regions is proceeding rapidly. Housing is frequently unaffordable to all but the top earners. A recent report estimates a housing affordability gap affecting 330 million households, with 200 million households in the developing world living in slums (McKinsey Global Institute 2014). Research has shown that more and better housing increases the welfare of occupants. Homeownership may increase stability and civic engagement, and provide financial security in old age. Improvements in housing also have important benefits to the economy. Housing construction and home improvement generate demand for professional, skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled labor; and allow many micro and small businesses to flourish. The housing market is an important component of national economies and housing booms and busts can have significant effects on the macro economy and financial sector. The core purpose of this learning product is to generate knowledge and provide lessons learned from World Bank Group support to housing finance. Lessons were derived primarily from evaluated interventions in the form of World Bank loans or International Finance Corporation (IFC) investments and advisory services. World Bank technical assistance and knowledge products and interventions on housing finance matters were considered when provided in the context of lending operations. One limitation faced in preparation of this learning product was the lack of coverage of stand-alone World Bank advisory services.

Das europäische Emissionshandelssystem ist das zentrale Element der EU-Klimapolitik und umfasst knapp die Hälfte der europäischen Treibhausgasemissionen. Mehr als zehn Jahre nach seiner Einführung besteht ein großes Forschungsinteresse an seiner Funktionsfähigkeit und am Verhalten der betroffenen Unternehmen. Die Ergebnisse dreier am DIW Berlin erstellter ökonometrischer Studien auf Basis von Mikrodaten auf Unternehmens- beziehungsweise Anlagenebene deuten darauf hin, dass es insgesamt nur geringe Verzerrungen im Firmenverhalten gibt. Allerdings zeigen sich Besonderheiten im Verhalten kleiner Unternehmen, aus denen Ineffizienzen resultieren können. So nahmen kleine Unternehmen in der ersten Handelsperiode weniger aktiv am Zertifikatehandel teil als umsatzstärkere Firmen. Zudem hängen die Emissionen kleiner Kraftwerksanlagen in einem gewissen Maß von den Zuteilungsregeln ab. Auch die Kostensenkungspotenziale aus internationalen Emissionsgutschriften nutzen kleine Unternehmen teilweise nicht: So ließen 22 Prozent aller Unternehmen, ganz überwiegend kleine Emittenten, Kostensenkungspotenziale von durchschnittlich 31 000 Euro ungenutzt. Der Grund hierfür waren vermutlich Hemmnisse, die sich als fixe Transaktionskosten interpretieren lassen. Für weitergehende Ex-post-Analysen wäre eine zeitnahe und nutzerfreundliche Bereitstellung von anlagenspezifischen Emissionshandelsdaten von großem Nutzen. The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the cornerstone of the European Union's climate policy and covers just under half of the EU's greenhouse gas emissions. More than ten years since the EU ETS was first introduced, there continues to be substantial research interest regarding its workings and the behavior of participating companies. DIW Berlin conducted three econometric studies based on microdata at the company and/or installation level. The findings suggest that, overall, there are only minor distortions in the behavior of companies regulated by the EU ETS. However, the studies also show that small companies exhibit distinctive behavior which could result in inefficiencies. For instance, during trading phase one, small companies participated less actively in trading emissions allowances than companies with a higher turnover. Moreover, the emissions produced by small power plants depend, to a certain extent, on the allocation rules. Small companies also often fail to take full advantage of the cost reduction potential of international offset credits: for a total of 22 percent of all companies (predominantly small emitters), an average of 31,000 euros in cost reduction potential remained unused. The barriers causing this loss may be interpreted as fixed transaction costs. For further ex post analyses, the timely provision of userfriendly emissions trading data at the installation level would be very beneficial.

We propose a formal re-definition of the concept market failure based on the idea of the imperfect state. In the Neo-classical taxonomy, a decentralized regime of exchange is a market failure if its laissez faire equilibrium solution is welfare-dominated by a technically feasible alternative. If the state is perfect, that is, benevolent and its transactions cost of intervention is zero, every market failure can be remedied/corrected with a welfare gain. If the state is imperfect, that is, either non-benevolent or with non-zero transactions cost, the state intervention to correct the market failure can be welfare-reducing. Extending the logic behind Williamson's remediableness criterion and Stiglitz' constrained Paretoness, we introduce a new taxonomy of failures: the concept "proto-failure" now denotes any failure which laissez faire interaction cannot remedy without a welfare gain. The label "market failure" now denotes a proto-failure which the relevant state can correct with a welfare gain. A proto-failure that the relevant state cannot correct with a welfare gain we call "RC efficient." We use the net welfare metric which explicitly accounts for transactions cost of intervention as efficiency criterion. The new taxonomy is equivalent to the old if the state is perfect, that is, all proto failures are market failures. When the state is imperfect, the set of market failures is smaller than the set of proto-failures. A proto-failure is a necessary - but not a sufficient - condition for a welfare-improving government intervention. This paper follows the Williamson counsel to "push the logic of positive transactions cost to completion."

This contribution examines § 4 of the athenian decree on weights an measures from the end of the 2nd century BC (IG II² 1013) where the use of a new volume measure is ordered, and especially its §4, where the market weight of the mna is altered, attempting to clarify its legal aim and economic implications. So far, this reform has been discussed by some historians as a matter of confrontational economic policy. Examining the relation among roman and athenian weight units, it is argued that this law led to an easier convertibility among units, facilitating commerce among territories familiar with either notation, reducing transaction costs as defined by Douglass North. The interpretation of the decree in a protectionist manner of Rome against Athens is contrasted with the proposition that it might be better understood as a pragmatic regulation achieving harmonization by standardization.

El presente trabajo expone un modelo de demanda de dinero intertemporal en la que los agentes toman en cuenta que el dinero reduce los costos de transacción de comprar bienes de consumo., This paper presents a model of intertemporal money demand in which agents take into account that the money reduces transaction costs of buying consumer goods.

Currently, due to their level of proximity and periodic transfers of competences from the national government, local governments are responsible for many services consumed by citizens. Their competences are growing and nowadays include water supply, promotion of regional development, solid waste collection, emergency management, health care, education, land use management, among many others. To cope with all these challenges, local governments changed from a single multi-purpose organization to a complex network of relationships with other public bodies, private agents, and non-profit organizations. In this complex network we witness different levels and combinations of autonomy and control that local governments allow/impose on their agencies/partners/contractors. Local governments in Portugal no longer assume the provision of all public services through in-house bureaucracies. They combine different strategies of coordination using both market competition and network collaboration based on trust as alternative mechanisms. The path of evolution began with simple hierarchic organizations composed by municipal services, then it moved to municipalized services (a slightly more autonomous and flexible configuration) followed by enabling legislation allowing local governments to create municipal corporations (Tavares & Camões, 2007), which in many cases replaced former arrangements. By the end of the 1990s, local governments began contracting with external actors to provide public services. Their option was to contract-out public services making use of market price mechanisms and market competitiveness. In other cases, local governments preferred less competitive partnerships with other governments or with non-profit organizations (mostly on social services). A survey conducted among local governments allows us to identify twelve organizational configuration alternatives to deliver public services: municipal services; municipalized services; municipal enterprises; inter-municipal enterprises; municipal commercial corporations; public commercial corporations; mixed commercial corporations; contracting-out of private agents; partnerships with non-profit actors; local governments associations; and metropolitan associations. Using coordination and control mechanisms as a criteria (authority, competition and collaboration), we seek to identify all the alternatives presented in three governance mechanisms (hierarchy, market, and networks). 2 Municipal Service Delivery: The Role of Transaction Costs in the Choicebetween Alternative Governance Mechanisms. EGPA Annual Conference, Malta, 2-5 September 2009 Next, we employ a transaction cost framework to derive a set of hypotheses explaining the choice of governance mechanisms to provide public services. In order to do so, we develop four sets of independent variables concerning service characteristics, community characteristics, financial situation, and administrative and political stability. Services with high levels of specificity and difficult measurability involve high levels of transactions costs, making them less likely to be externalized (Coase, 1937; Williamson, 1975; Nelson, 1997; Ferris & Graddy, 1997). Second, we argue that local governments operating in highly complex environments require more flexible governance solutions (Burns & Stalker, 1961) and, in contrast, mechanisms of governance based on hierarchy are more likely to be adopted in environments characterized by lower levels of complexity in service provision (Weber, 1947; Alexander, 1995; Blau & Meyer, 1971). Third, we argue that different degrees of financial capacity drive local governments to choose different mechanisms of governance (Brown, Potoski, & Slyke, 2006). Finally, based upon work by Hood (1998), Frant (1996), and Clingermayer and Feiock (1997), we suggest that political instability can put pressure on politicians to improve efficiency levels through the use of external agents. We test our hypotheses with a multinomial logit regression model using survey data collected from 101 Portuguese local governments and archival data available from the National Bureau of Statistics. The Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia – FCT) [grant number PEst-OE/CJP/UI0758/2011-2012] provided financial support for this research. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Fundação de Ciência e Tecnologia(FCT).

We examine the determinants of corporate cash holdings in Australia and the impact on shareholder wealth of holding excess cash. Our results show that a trade-off model best explains the level of a firm’s cash holdings in Australia. We find that ‘transitory’ excess cash firms earn significantly higher risk-adjusted returns compared to ‘persistent’ excess cash firms, suggesting that the market penalises firms that hoard cash. The marginal value of cash also declines with larger cash balances, and the longer firms hold on to excess cash. The results are consistent with agency costs associated with persistence in excess cash holdings.

Sri Lanka's population is still largely rural, nearly 85 percent lives outside of cities. There will probably be rural-to-urban migration in the future, which represents a potential opportunity to m-money providers. People working in cities often wish to repatriate their savings to their rural families conveniently and at a low cost. Income is fairly evenly spread across Sri Lanka s provinces, with the exception of the Western Province where Colombo, the largest city, is situated. Its GDP per capita places Sri Lanka near the average of comparable Southeast Asian countries. Malaysia is clearly an outlier with a considerably higher GDP per capita, but Sri Lanka s GDP is higher than that of the Philippines, where m-money has taken off dramatically. Poverty is less of a problem in Sri Lanka relative to countries like Bangladesh or Cambodia, where GDP per capita is much lower. The key point is that Sri Lanka is at a different stage in its economic development and is unlikely to have the same socioeconomic conditions that made m-money in Kenya accelerate so rapidly.

This paper deals with the theme 'The Institute of Unitization,' or even 'Individualization of Production,' as national classification, terms that describe what happens to be a joint and coordinated from a reservoir of oil or gas by all parties with property rights on the areas where the reservoir stretches. The concepts of Unitization will be studied and discussed according to context of the oil industry in its entirety technical, legal and economic issues. In light of Economic Theory, will be analyzed the Fundamentals of the Institute of Unitization and evolution of its application in national and international context. O presente trabalho aborda o tema 'Instituto da Unitização', ou mesmo 'Individualização da Produção', conforme nomenclatura nacional, termos que designam o que vem a ser uma operação conjunta e coordenada de um reservatório de petróleo, gás natural ou ambos por todas as partes com direitos de propriedade sobre as áreas por onde se estende o reservatório. Os conceitos de Unitização serão estudados e abordados segundo contexto da indústria do petróleo em seus elementos técnicos, jurídicos e econômicos. À luz da Teoria Econômica, serão analisados os Fundamentos do Instituto da Unitização e a evolução de sua aplicação no contexto nacional e internacional.

Under the assumption that the landlord is risk-neutral and the tenant is risk-averse, sharecropping is second-best in that it trades off risk sharing and incentives. Many, however, have reported instances of reverse share tenancy, or sharecropping in which the landlord is considerably poorer than the tenant. This note shows that reverse share tenancy is impossible under the canonical Stiglitzian model of sharecropping but becomes possible if and only if (i) both the landlord and the tenant can be assumed risk-averse; or (ii) there exist significant transactions costs making sharecropping more desirable than either a wage or fixed rent contract.

The influence on local government organization and management of new public management practices promoted by national administrative reforms remains an issue of contention. On one hand, some authors argue that these reforms have produced similar results at both the central and local levels of government (John 2001; Sanderson 2001; Van Gramberg & Teicher 2000). Others consider that the political nature of elected mayors and their legitimacy derived from close proximity with voters has limited its impact at the local level (McLaughlin 2002). However, it is unquestionable that local governance has changed over the years, distancing itself from traditional management involving clearly defined hierarchical relations, long-lasting career systems, bureaucratic control mechanisms, and in-house production. The influence of Public Choice theory and the New Public Management reforms have transformed local governance, albeit the degree of change remains under dispute. These changes resulted in the adoption of alternative mechanisms to deliver public services based on the externalization of service delivery, either using market approaches or employing partnerships with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The influence of New Public Management reforms brought about new service delivery arrangements replacing traditional bureaucratic in-house supply. Examples of these arrangements include: 1) CCT (Compulsory Competitive Tendering) replacing service delivery through in-house formal hierarchy with contracting (Fenwick, Shaw, & Foreman 1994); 2) Best Value relying on the comparison between delivery by the local government bureaucracy and alternative solutions provided by the market (Sanderson, 2001; Martin & Hartley 2000); 3) Local Government Amendment stressing the separation of municipal functions and highlighting the need for a corporate approach to commercial type functions (Wallis & Dollery 2001); and 4) New Steering Model (NSM) promoting functional decentralization and service autonomy to accomplish efficiency gains and quality in service delivery (Reichard 2003). Currently, local governments are responsible for the provision of an ever growing number of public services, including education, social services, land use planning and management, water supply, wastewater management, solid waste collection and management, and the promotion of local economic development. The mayoral system at the local level associated with the traditional administrative culture has produced resistance to the introduction and implementation of New Public Management reforms. In-house bureaucratic solutions still represent a large proportion of service delivery choices among Portuguese local governments. Nevertheless, the adoption of new governance mechanisms based on market competition and contracting out began increasing by the end of the 1990s. In recent years, we also witnessed the rise of alternatives to both market and hierarchy, through solutions relying on network partnerships and municipal cooperation. The large number of functions assumed by local governments as a result of central government delegation generated a substantial increase in the number and diversity of alternative governance mechanisms. We analyse the choice between these governance mechanisms in light of current trends of administrative reform. Our central hypothesis follows Robert Stein’s 1993 assertion that service characteristics influence the choice among governance mechanisms (hierarchy, market or network). We match three types of municipal services with these governance mechanisms and develop our hypotheses accordingly. First, we expect regulatory and monitoring activities to be provided by hierarchy type mechanisms (Lowi 1964; Peterson 1981; Barney 1999). Second, for activities involving the delivery of private goods and services (rival consumption and exclusion), local government officials will be inclined to use market-type mechanisms (Brown & Potoski 2003a; Ostrom & Ostrom 1977). Finally, social services, generally involving redistributive and social policies are most likely provided by network type mechanisms (Lamothe, Lamothe, & Feiock 2007; Brandsen & Pestoff 2006; Osbourne & McLaughlin 2004; Lowi 1964). The empirical analysis employs data collected from a sample of 102 Portuguese local governments between February and October 2008.

While in principle, international payments could be carried out using any currency or set of currencies, in practice, the U.S. dollar is predominant in international trade and financial flows. The dollar acts as a "vehicle currency" in the sense that agents in nondollar economies will generally engage in currency trade indirectly using the U.S. dollar rather than using direct bilateral trade among their own currencies. Indirect trade is desirable when there are transactions costs of exchange.> ; This paper constructs a dynamic general equilibrium model of a vehicle currency. We explore the nature of the efficiency gains arising from a vehicle currency, and show how this depends on the total number of currencies in existence, the size of the vehicle currency economy, and the monetary policy followed by the vehicle currency's government. We find that there can be very large welfare gains to a vehicle currency in a system of many independent currencies. But these gains are asymmetry weighted towards the residents of the vehicle currency country. The survival of a vehicle currency places natural limits on the monetary policy of the vehicle country.

This paper assessed the effects of transactions costs—relative to price and non-price factors—on smallholder marketed surplus and input use in Kenya. A selectivity model was used that accounts not only for the effects of fixed and variable transactions costs but also for the role of assets, technology, and support services in promoting input use and generating a marketable surplus. Output supply and input demand responses to changes in transactions costs and price and non-price factors were estimated and decomposed into market entry and intensity. The results showed that while transactions costs indeed have significant negative effects on market participation, cost-mitigating innovations—such as group marketing—are also emerging to mitigate the costs of accessing markets. Output price has no effect on output market entry and only provides incentives for increased supply by sellers. On the other hand, both price and non-price factors have significant influence on adoption and intensity of input use. Overall, the findings suggest that policy options are available other than price policies to promote input use and agricultural surplus.

Recent changes in Public Administration brought local government management to a new era. In recent years we witnessed a huge transformation in this reality. Early forms of organization, control and coordination of public goods have been replaced by other forms of organization such as contracting-out, private/public partnerships and public enterprises and agencies. Using a transactions cost framework, along with financial situation analysis, environmental complexity and political degree of stability we seek to find relevant factors that drive local government choices regarding the coordination mechanisms in the provision of public services.

ÖZET ENFLASYON VERGİSİ VE NAKİT KISITLARININ OLDUĞU BİR EKONOMİDE PERİYOT UZUNLUĞU Çubuk, Bedriye Master, Ekonomi Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Y. Doç. Dr. Neil Arnwine Temmuz 2002 Bu çalışmanın amacı, tüketicilerin finansal işlem yapma sıklığını incelemek ve bu sıklığın paranın dolaşım hızı, fiyat düzeyi, işlem maliyeti ve sonrasında enflasyonun refah düzeyi üzerindeki etkilerini incelemektir. Baumol-Tobin işlem mekanizması olan, satınalmalarda nakit kısıtlarının bulunduğu bir model geliştirdik. Bu model, işlem periyodunda değişime izin vererek nakit kısıtlarının olduğu modellere, genel denge içerisinde karar verme özelliğiyle de Baumol-Tobin modellerine katkıda bulunmuştur. İşlem periyot uzunluğunun parasal ekonomide önemli bir yer aldığını gözlemledik. Anahtar Kelimeler: Nakit Kısıtlı Modeller, İşlem Maliyeti, Paranın Dolaşım Hızı, Enflasyonun Refaha Etkisi. iv ABSTRACT THE INFLATION TAX AND PERIOD LENGTH IN CASH-IN- AD VANCE MODELS Çubuk, Bedriye M. A., Department of Economics Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Neil Arnwine July 2002 The aim of this study is to focus on the frequency with which consumers conduct financial transactions, and the role that this plays in the determination of the money velocity, price level, transactions cost and consequently determination of welfare cost of inflation. We introduce a CIA model with a Baumol-Tobin transactions mechanism. This provides a contribution to the CIA literature by allowing the transactions period to be endogenous and contributes to the Baumol- Tobin model by placing the decision rules in a general equilibrium setting. We find that the transactions period length is an integral part of the behavior of the monetary economy. Keywords: Cash-in-advance Models, Transactions Cost, Velocity of Money, Welfare Cost of Inflation T.C YÜKSlKÖtfRCTTM KDS0U? DOKÜMANTASYON MERKEZİ 111 39