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Lower body positive pressure (LBPP) is an effective way of simulating hypogravity. This study measured the submaximal VO2, VCO2 and heart rate when walking on an LBPP treadmill at 1G and simulated Martian gravity (0.38G). Twelve healthy subjects with a mean age ± SD of 22.75 ± 5.38 yrs took part in this study with full consent. The LBPP box used was designed and built by the Microgravity Center. The subjects walked for 8 min at a control of 1G and then for another 8 min in simulated 0.38G 2 wks later. VO2 was 1.00 ± 0.61 L·min-1 at 1G and 0.68 ± 0.33 L·min-1 in the simulated 0.38G (P<0.05). Average caloric expenditure was significantly reduced at simulated Martian gravity (4.79 ± 2.80 kcal·min-1) when compared to the control (3.37 ± 1.49 Kcal·min-1) (P<0.05). The subjects' HR was reduced from 118.49 ± 15.07 beats·min-1 at 1G to 106.20 ± 11.17 beats·min-1 at simulated 0.38G (P<0.05). The average respiratory exchange ratio was significantly increased from 0.83 ± 0.13 to 1.14 ± 0.19 in simulated 0.38G (P<0.05), with no significant difference seen in VCO2. Energy consumption was significantly decreased when walking in LBPP simulated hypogravity. Further research into LBPP physiology can be used to calibrate EVA suits and advise on exercise regimes for future astronauts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper proposed a visual servo framework for the tower-crane-like Gravity Compensation System that is widely used in various aerospace ground tests. In this framework, a real-time detection algorithm is proposed to measure the position of the target. Using this algorithm, the target's original position is marked firstly in a well-designed calibration step, and then compared to its real-time position to calculate the offset for tracking. To realize the high precision tracking, a 2-level servo mechanism is investigated, in which a large-inertia crane servo system is utilized for the rough tracking and a 2-DOF (2 Direction Of Freedom) platform is used for the precise localization. The proposed method leads to a high responding speed and low time-drift in wide range tracking, and greatly decreases the compensation error in the microgravity simulation for space manipulator and moon vehicle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION: Astronauts undergo CO2 exposure training to recognize their symptoms that can arise acutely both on the ground and in spaceflight. This article describes acute CO2 exposure training at NASA and examines the symptoms reported by astronauts during training. METHODS: In a controlled training environment, astronauts are exposed to up to 8% CO2 (60 mmHg) by a rebreathing apparatus. Symptoms are reported using a standard form. RESULTS: Symptom documentation forms between April 1994 and February 2012 were obtained for 130 astronauts.The number of symptoms reported per session out of the possible 24 was related to age and sex, with those older slightly more likely to report symptoms. Women reported more symptoms on average than men (men: 3.7, women: 4.7). Respiratory symptoms (90%), flushing sensation/sweating (56%), and dizziness/feeling faint/lightheadedness (43%) were the top symptoms. Only headache reached statistical significance in differences between men (13%) and women (37%) after adjustment for multiple testing. Among those with multiple training sessions, respiratory symptoms were the most consistently reported. DISCUSSION: CO2 exposure training is an important tool to educate astronauts about their potential acute CO2 symptoms. Wide interindividuai and temporal variations were observed in symptoms reported during astronaut CO2 exposure training. Headache could not be relied on as a marker of acute exposure during testing since fewer than half the subjects reported it. Our results support periodic refresher training since symptoms may change over time. Further study is needed to determine the optimal interval of training to maximize symptom recognition and inform operational decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION: Creation of the cosmonaut In-flight physical training process is currently based on the leading role of support afferents In the development of hypogravity changes in the motor system. We assume that the strength of support afferents is related to the magnitude of the ground reaction forces (GRF). For this purpose it was necessary to compare the GRF magnitude on the Russian BD-2 treadmill for different locomotion types (walking and running), modes (active and passive), and subjects. METHODS: Relative GRF values were analyzed while subjects performed walking and running during active and passive modes of treadmill belt movement under 1 G [N = 6) and 0 G (A/ = 4) conditions. RESULTS: For different BD-2 modes and both types of locomotion, maximum GRF values varied in both 0 G and 1 G. Considerable individual variations were also found in the locomotion strategies, as well as in maximum GRF values. In 0 G, the smallest GRF values were observed for walking in active mode, and the largest during running in passive mode. In 1 G, GRF values were higher during running than while walking, but the difference between active and passive modes was not observed; we assume this was due to the uniqueness of the GRF profile. DISCUSSION: The maximum GRF recorded during walking and running in active and passive modes depended on the Individual pattern of locomotion. The maximum GRF values that we recorded on BD-2 were close to values found by other researchers. The observations from this study could guide individualized countermeasures prescriptions for microgravity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The traditional method used for handling qualities assessment of manned space vehicles is too time-consuming to meet the requirements of an increasingly fast design process. In this study, a rendezvous and docking inverse simulation system to assess the handling qualities of spacecraft is proposed using a previously developed model-predictive-control architecture. By considering the fixed discrete force of the thrusters of the system, the inverse model is constructed using the least squares estimation method with a hyper-ellipsoidal restriction, the continuous control outputs of which are subsequently dispersed by pulse width modulation with sensitivity factors introduced. The inputs in every step are deemed constant parameters, and the method could be considered as a general method for solving nominal, redundant, and insufficient inverse problems. The rendezvous and docking inverse simulation is applied to a nine-degrees-of-freedom platform, and a novel handling qualities evaluation scheme is established according to the operation precision and astronauts' workload. Finally, different nominal trajectories are scored by the inverse simulation and an established evaluation scheme. The scores can offer theoretical guidance for astronaut training and more complex operation missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methods of creation and operating peculiarities of simulators for training astronauts to work in zero or low gravity conditions are analyzed. Principles of simulators’ construction using the forth-compensating system are considered. The results of theoretical and experimental studies of electromechanical forth-compensating systems are shown. Based on the analysis results of requirements and operating experience of existing simulators, the ways of their improvement are identified. The design principles and implementation methods of advanced simulators for training astronauts in the implementation of the lunar and Martian space exploration programs are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Astronauts’ training is conventionally performed in a pool to reproduce weightlessness by exploiting buoyancy which is supposed to reduce the impact of gravity on the body. However, this training method has not been scientifically validated yet, and requires first to study the effects of underwater exposure on motor behavior. We examined the influence of neutral buoyancy on kinematic features of whole-body reaching underwater and compared them with those produced on land. Eight professional divers were asked to perform arm reaching movements toward visual targets while standing. Targets were presented either close or far from the subjects (requiring in the latter case an additional whole-body displacement). Reaching movements were performed on land or underwater in two different contexts of buoyancy. The divers either wore a diving suit only with neutral buoyancy applied to their center of mass or were additionally equipped with a submersible simulated space suit with neutral buoyancy applied to their body limbs. Results showed that underwater exposure impacted basic movement features, especially movement speed which was reduced. However, movement kinematics also differed according to the way buoyancy was exerted on the whole-body. When neutral buoyancy was applied to the center of mass only, some focal and postural components of whole-body reaching remained close to land observations, notably when considering the relative deceleration duration of arm elevation and concomitant forward trunk bending when reaching the far target. On the contrary, when neutral buoyancy was exerted on body segments, movement kinematics were close to those reported in weightlessness, as reflected by the arm deceleration phase and the whole-body forward displacement when reaching the far target. These results suggest that astronauts could benefit from the application of neutral buoyancy across the whole-body segments to optimize underwater training and acquire specific motor skills which will be used in space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Astronauts experience disturbances in balance and gait function when they return to Earth. The highly plastic human brain enables individuals to modify their behavior to match the prevailing environment. Subjects participating in specially designed variable sensory challenge training programs can enhance their ability to rapidly adapt to novel sensory situations. This is useful in our application because we aim to train astronauts to rapidly formulate effective strategies to cope with the balance and locomotor challenges associated with new gravitational environments--enhancing their ability to "learn to learn." We do this by coupling various combinations of sensorimotor challenges with treadmill walking. A unique training system has been developed that is comprised of a treadmill mounted on a motion base to produce movement of the support surface during walking. This system provides challenges to gait stability. Additional sensory variation and challenge are imposed with a virtual visual scene that presents subjects with various combinations of discordant visual information during treadmill walking. This experience allows them to practice resolving challenging and conflicting novel sensory information to improve their ability to adapt rapidly. Information obtained from this work will inform the design of the next generation of sensorimotor countermeasures for astronauts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Signal scaling is an essential step in spaceflight simulation. Thus far, the third-order polynomial scaling method has been widely used for signal scaling; however, in this method, parameter tuning is complicated and may induce perceptible distortion during large-range monotonic signal scaling. In the simulation of spacecraft return, specifically, that of re-entry, acceleration and angular velocity signals may vary considerably over short time periods. Motion perception is important for training astronauts in this phase. In this study, two strategies are proposed to solve these problems using the ‘scaling scope’ parameter. The first strategy is based on the Hermite interpolation polynomial, and the other is based on third-order polynomial scaling. Two methods were developed which make use of the stable region of third-order polynomial scaling. The first method maximizes the stable region to prevent signal distortion, and the other restricts the scaling scope in the stable region. Based on the dynamic characteristics of spacecraft in the return phase, the signal scaling strategies proposed in this study are simulated for trainees’ perception in a motion-base simulator. Simulations were implemented by utilizing the full curves of spacecraft return phase for the first time, and results show that these methods are more advantageous for parameter tuning and can eliminate signal distortion for all input signals. While these methods have a shortcoming in that the trigger velocity (onset cue) is slowed down, this shortcoming is eliminated by employing the moving cueing algorithm. Both the strategies proposed in this article show good performance and can be applied potentially to the motion simulation of the spacecraft return phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Since years Novespace and Astrium are discussing mutual interest in cooperating together when considering Novespace well established capabilities and the ongoing development of the Astrium Spaceplane and its unique features. Indeed both companies are proposing service for non-public missions which require microgravity environment especially. It relies on assets of both parties: [•] Novespace in operating 0-G aircraft platforms for the sake of the European scientific community for decades; [•] Astrium and its Spaceplane currently in pre-development phase. Novespace and its Airbus A300 Zero-G exhibit a unique know-how in Europe for operating scientific payload on aeronautic platform(s). Moreover Astrium is preparing the development of a safe and passenger friendly Spaceplane, taking off and landing from a standard airport runway powered by turbofans and using a rocket engine of proven design to reach 100km altitude. The paper details the joint service offered and the added value of the partnership of Novespace and Astrium for various end-users. In addition longer duration of on-board microgravity periods and ultra high altitude features of the Astrium Spaceplane mission expand the scope of possible non-public applications which includes e.g.: [•] Earth system science and probing of uncharted layers of Earth atmosphere on a regular basis and in various locations worldwide; [•] Spaceflight crew training. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Our goal was to determine whether existing tests of spatial ability can predict an astronaut's qualification test performance after robotic training. Because training astronauts to be qualified robotics operators is so long and expensive, NASA is interested in tools that can predict robotics performance before training begins. Currently, the Astronaut Office does not have a validated tool to predict robotics ability as part of its astronaut selection or training process. Commonly used tests of human spatial ability may provide such a tool to predict robotics ability. We tested the spatial ability of 50 active astronauts who had completed at least one robotics training course, then used logistic regression models to analyze the correlation between spatial ability test scores and the astronauts' performance in their evaluation test at the end of the training course. The fit of the logistic function to our data is statistically significant for several spatial tests. However, the prediction performance of the logistic model depends on the criterion threshold assumed. To clarify the critical selection issues, we show how the probability of correct classification vs. misclassification varies as a function of the mental rotation test criterion level. Since the costs of misclassification are low, the logistic models of spatial ability and robotic performance are reliable enough only to be used to customize regular and remedial training. We suggest several changes in tracking performance throughout robotics training that could improve the range and reliability of predictive models. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As NASA works to redefine the meaning of its mission, two social scientists apply tools from phenomenology to explore how an agency, on the cusp of new thought, is tasked with discovery. Sources for the analysis include interviews, observations, case files and documents before and after a site visit to Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. Findings suggest that NASA should consider creating an internal office of phenomenological inquiry designed to recognize phenomenology at work as a fundamental approach for discovery. A special note of appreciation is extended to NASA for fostering and encouraging access to their organization to observe operations at the side of astronauts in training, engineers and scientists at work, and managers overseeing a Space Shuttle mission. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We have shown before that subjects exposed to a changed gravitoinertial environment produce exaggerated manual forces. From the observed pattern of findings, we argued that initial forces were exaggerated because of abnormal vestibular activity and peak forces because of degraded proprioceptive feedback. If so, only peak but not initial forces should be affected by water immersion, an environment that influences proprioceptive feedback but not vestibular activity. The present study was undertaken to scrutinize this prediction. Twelve subjects sat in a chair once immersed in water and once on dry land, while producing pre-trained isometric forces with a joystick. In a control experiment, subjects performed a four-choice reaction-time task. During the joystick task, produced initial forces were comparable in water and on land, while peak (+24%) and end forces (+22%) were significantly higher in water, as was their reaction time (+6%). During the control task, reaction time was comparable in water and on land. Our findings corroborate the above notion that initial forces increase when the vestibular system is stimulated (gravitoinertial change, visual field motion, but not water immersion), while peak forces increase when proprioceptive feedback is degraded (probably all three scenarios) and are not corrected until response end. Our findings further confirm the absence of cognitive slowing in simple-choice reaction tasks under shallow-water immersion conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perception of the subjective visual vertical (SVV) is mainly based on the contributions from the visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive systems, and participates to the process of spatial orientation in relation to the surrounding environment and to the gravito-inertial force. The SVV can be significantly influenced by the presence of a displaced visual field, as in the case of the rod and frame test (RFT). A series of studies showed the effects of haematic mass shifts to and from the lower limbs on SVV, due to visceral mechanoreceptors (VM) located at the level of the kidneys and of the thorax. These sensors may be artificially activated with a lower body negative pressure (LBNP) device. In this study, the role of visual and VM cues to orientation perception have been evaluated using the RFT and the LBNP devices under a microgravity environment. A preliminary investigation was conducted in a sample of military pilots to develop a RFT protocol to be used in microgravity environments. This protocol was adopted to evaluate the contribution of VM to the SVV in a cosmonaut before, during and after a 10 day space flight, with and without concurrent activation of LBNP. The same test sequence, including LBNP exposure, was repeated a few months later on Earth on the same subject. As expected, the influence of the frame on rod positioning was statistically significant in all test conditions. During the in-flight experimental step, a substantial lack of significant changes compared to the pre-flight condition was observed. Moreover, substantially no effects due to LBNP were observed. A mild rod displacement from the body axis was detected under microgravity compared to the pre-flight recording. Such a finding was in part reduced during LBNP. The same findings were observed during the post-flight repetition of the experiment. Our results showed an absence in this subject of significant effects on the RFT due to microgravity. In conclusion, no effects from his VM on the RFT and minor changes in the SVV could be detected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper discusses about the astronaut training programme. They are trained to work in unusual or hazardous environments- as pilots, drivers, or reactor engineers. However, their training programmes are unlikely to major in "maintaining fine motor control in conditions where objects are weightless but retain their inertia", and "what to do if your protective clothing is pierced by a high-speed projectile". Few and far between are the schemes that include a module on how to go to the toilet. Welcome to the world of astronaut training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Neil Armstrong’s understated words, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind” were spoken from Tranquility Base forty years ago. Even today, those words resonate in the ears of millions, including many who had yet to be born when man first landed on the surface of the moon. By their very nature, and in the true spirit of exploration, extravehicular activities (EVAs) have generated much excitement throughout the history of manned spaceflight. From Ed White’s first spacewalk in the June of 1965, to the first steps on the moon in 1969, to the expected completion of the International Space Station (ISS), the ability to exist, live and work in the vacuum of space has stood as a beacon of what is possible. It was NASA’s first spacewalk that taught engineers on the ground the valuable lesson that successful spacewalking requires a unique set of learned skills. That lesson sparked extensive efforts to develop and define the training requirements necessary to ensure success. As focus shifted from orbital activities to lunar surface activities, the required skill set and subsequently the training methods changed. The requirements duly changed again when NASA left the moon for the last time in 1972 and have continued to evolve through the SkyLab, Space Shuttle, and ISS eras. Yet because the visits to the moon were so long ago, NASA’s expertise in the realm of extra-terrestrial EVAs has diminished. As manned spaceflight again shifts its focus beyond low earth orbit, EVA’s success will depend on the ability to synergize the knowledge gained over 40+ years of spacewalking to create a training method that allows a single crewmember to perform equally well, whether performing an EVA on the surface of the Moon, while in the vacuum of space, or heading for a rendezvous with Mars. This paper reviews NASA’s past and present EVA training methods and extrapolates techniques from both to construct the basis for future EVA astronaut training. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) are an essential part of human space exploration, but involve inherently dangerous procedures which can put crew safety at risk during a space mission. To help mitigate this risk, astronauts’ training programs spend substantial attention on preparing for surface EVA emergency scenarios. With the help of two Mars Desert Research Station (MDRS) crews (61 and 65), wearing simulated spacesuits, the most important of these emergency scenarios were examined at three different types of locations that geologically and environmentally resemble lunar and Martian landscapes. These three platforms were analyzed geologically as well as topographically (utilizing a laser range finder with slope estimation capabilities and a slope determination software). Emergency scenarios were separated into four main groups: (1) suit issues, (2) general physiological, (3) attacks and (4) others. Specific tools and procedures were developed to address each scenario. The tools and processes were tested in the field under Mars-analog conditions with the suited subjects for feasibility and speed of execution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The extraordinary challenge mission designers, scientists, and engineers, faced in planning the first human expeditions to the surface of another solar system body led to the development of a distinctive and even revolutionary approach to field work. Not only were those involved required to deal effectively with the extreme limitation in resources available for and access to a target as remote as the lunar surface; they were required to developed a rigorous approach to science activities ranging from geological field work to deploying field instruments. Principal aspects and keys to the success of the field work are discussed here, including the highly integrated, intensive, and lengthy science planning, simulation, and astronaut training; the development of a systematic scheme for description and documentation of geological sites and samples; and a flexible yet disciplined methodology for site documentation and sample collection. The capability for constant communication with a ‘backroom’ of geological experts who make requests and weigh in on surface operations was innovative and very useful in encouraging rapid dissemination of information to the greater community in general. An extensive archive of the Apollo era science activity related documents provides evidence of the principal aspects and keys to the success of the field work. The Apollo Surface Journal allows analysis of the astronaut’s performance in terms of capability for traveling on foot, documentation and sampling of field stations, and manual operation of tools and instruments, all as a function of time. The application of these analysis as ‘lessons learned’ for planning the next generation of human or robotic field science activities on the Moon and elsewhere are considered here as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Space transportation is inherently risky to humans, whether they are trained astronauts or paying tourists, given that spaceflight is still in its relative infancy. However, this is easy to forget when subjected to the hype often associated with space tourism and the ventures seeking to enter that market. The development of commercial spaceflight constitutes a challenge as much as a great opportunity to the insurance industry as new risks emerge and standards, policies and procedures to minimise/mitigate and cover them still to be engineered. Therefore the creation of a viable and affordable insurance regime for future space tourists is a critical step in the development of a real space tourism market to address burning risk management issues that may otherwise ultimately hamper this nascent industry before it has a chance to prove itself. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In early 2008 the Columbus module was successfully attached to the ISS. Columbus is the main European contribution to the on-board scientific activity, and is the result of the interdisciplinary effort of European professionals involved from the concept to the utilisation of the laboratory. Astronauts from different Space Agencies have been trained to operate the scientific payloads aboard Columbus, in order to return fundamental data to the scientific community. The aim of this paper is to describe the current activity of the Columbus Payload Training Team (as part of the European Astronaut Centre of ESA) and from this experience derive lessons learned for the future training development, in view of long-term missions. The general structure of the training is described. The Columbus Payload Training Team activity is outlined and the process of the lesson development (Instructional System Design) is briefly described. Finally the features of the training process that can become critical in future scenario are highlighted. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

An essay is presented on the objectives and significance of Star City or Zvyozdny Gorodok, a cosmonaut training camp in Moscow, Russia. The area is specifically developed to train local and foreign cosmonauts. It is described as an area mixed with cramped simulators, vomit-comet-centrifuges and submerged replicas that will train cosmonauts in desensitizing nausea, claustrophobia, weightlessness and developing skills essential for their job.

Abstract: A simulation for flight of international crew on space station took place in Moscow from July 1999 to April 2000 (SFINCS) at the State Biomedical Institute of Russia (IBMP) isolation chambers. Objectives of this study were to identify concepts of psychosocial adaptation and of social interactions to develop an explanation of the transcultural group performance. Method: constructivist epistemology with grounded theory research and fourth generation evaluation were used. Data on processes and interactions were gathered during 110 days of confinement as a subject and extended to 240 days as an outside scientist. Results indicate that coping is influenced by usual coping strategies and coping behaviors inside. Several stresses and human factor issues were identified altering well being and performance inside the chambers. Enabling and limiting forces are discussed. A theory on transcultural group performance is proposed. Issues are raised that appear critical to selection, training and group performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The objective of this paper is twofold: (a) to review the current knowledge of cultural, psychological, psychiatric, cognitive, interpersonal, and organizational issues that are relevant to the behavior and performance of astronaut crews and ground support personnel and (b) to make recommendations for future human space missions, including both transit and planetary surface operations involving the Moon or Mars. The focus will be on long-duration missions lasting at least six weeks, when important psychological and interpersonal factors begin to take their toll on crewmembers. This information is designed to provide guidelines for astronaut selection and training, in-flight monitoring and support, and post-flight recovery and re-adaptation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Flying a parabolic trajectory in an aircraft is one of the few ways to create freefall on Earth, which is important for astronaut training and scientific research. Here we review the physics underlying parabolic flight, explain the resulting flight dynamics, and describe several counterintuitive findings, which we corroborate using experimental data. Typically, the aircraft flies parabolic arcs that produce approximately 25s of freefall (0g) followed by 40s of enhanced force (1.8g), repeated 30–60 times. Although passengers perceive gravity to be zero, in actuality acceleration, and not gravity, has changed, and thus we caution against the terms “microgravity” and “zero gravity.” Despite the aircraft trajectory including large (45°) pitch-up and pitch-down attitudes, the occupants experience a net force perpendicular to the floor of the aircraft. This is because the aircraft generates appropriate lift and thrust to produce the desired vertical and longitudinal accelerations, respectively, although we measured moderate (0.2g) aft-ward accelerations during certain parts of these trajectories. Aircraft pitch rotation (average 3°/s) is barely detectable by the vestibular system, but could influence some physics experiments. Investigators should consider such details in the planning, analysis, and interpretation of parabolic-flight experiments. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The International Space Station (ISS) is operated by a multi-national, multi-organizational team that is dispersed across multiple locations, time zones, and work schedules. At NASA, mission control personnel have had to find ways to address the leadership challenges inherent in such work, but have not had systematic training on how to do so. We interviewed 12 junior controllers and 14 senior controllers to examine the major leadership challenges they face and to highlight the solutions that they have found most effective to surmount them. We compare the perspectives of the two groups. Further, we contextualize our survey results with new analyses of standardized questionnaire data from 186 mission control personnel and a contrasting group of 30 space station crewmembers. The interview data showed that respondents had substantial consensus on several leadership challenges and on key strategies for dealing with them, but junior and senior controllers’ perspectives were different. The questionnaire data showed that the US mission control sample reported a level of support from their management that compared favorably to national norms. Although specific to space station personnel, our results are consistent with recent management, cultural, and aerospace research. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: An essential part of increment preparation for the ISS is the training of the flight crews. Each international partner is responsible for the basic training of its own astronauts, where a basic knowledge is taught on space science and engineering, ISS systems and operations and general astronaut skills like flying, diving, survival, language, etc. The main parts of the ISS crew training are the Advanced Training, e.g., generic ISS operations; nominal and malfunction systems operations and emergencies, and the Increment-Specific Training, i.e., operations and tasks specific to a particular increment. The Advanced and Increment-Specific Training is multilateral training, i.e., each partner is training all ISS astronauts on its contributions to the ISS program. Consequently, ESA is responsible for the Basic Training of its own astronauts and the Advanced and Increment-Specific Training of all ISS crews after Columbus activation on Columbus Systems Operations, Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), and ESA payloads. This paper gives an overview of the ESA ISS Training Program for Columbus Systems Operations and ATV, for which EADS Space Transportation GmbH is the prime contractor. The key training tasks, the training flow and the training facilities are presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A few dedicated training simulator applications exist that mix realistic interaction devices—like real cockpits in flight simulators—with virtual environment (VE) components. Dedicated virtual reality (VR) systems have been utilized also in astronaut training. However there are no detailed descriptions of projection wall VR systems and related interaction techniques for astronaut assembly training in zero gravity conditions. Back projection technology tends to have certain advantages over head mounted displays including less simulation sickness and less restricted user movement. A prototype was built to evaluate the usefulness of projection technology VEs and interaction techniques for astronaut training. This was achieved by first constructing a PC cluster-based general purpose VE software and hardware platform. This platform was used to implement a testing prototype for astronaut assembly sequence training. An interaction tool battery was designed for the purposes of viewpoint control and object handling. A selected training task was implemented as a case study for further analysis based on laptop usage in the Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL) inside the Columbus module in the International Space Station (ISS). User tests were conducted on the usability of the prototype for the intended training purpose. The results seem to indicate that projection technology-based VE systems and suitably selected interaction techniques can be successfully utilized in zero gravity training operations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]